QUALITY CONTROL

Testing of welded joints is a routine part of the quality

assurance process for welded fabrications. Weld testing is
carried out as part of the following.
• Weld procedure qualification – to ensure that the
welding procedure is capable of delivering welds that
are defect-free and have the required mechanical
properties.
• Welder qualification/certification – to ensure that the
welding operator is capable of producing defect-free
welds.
• Prototype testing or product inspection – to ensure
that the completed weldment meets specifications and
is fit for purpose.
 PRODUCT INSPECTION

• Weld quality is hard to define, but generally a quality weld is one

that does what it is designed to do (fit for purpose).
• Generally speaking, the requirement for ‘higher quality’ will
increase the cost of fabrication and this should be kept in mind
when specifying, or working to quality requirements.
• If the welding procedure is capable of delivering the required
mechanical strength, then all welds made using that procedure
will possess the required mechanical strength, provided that the
welds are fault free.
• Product inspection is usually carried out by simple visual methods.
• Where strength of the weld is critical, or when a structure is to be
subjected to high or dynamic loads, then further inspection and
testing methods may be required.
• For example, in the case of pressure vessels proof tests are
required on top of NDT testing.
 Selection of a testing method
• The testing procedure and associated costs form part of the overall
cost of the product.
• The procedure must be cost-effective if overall fabrication costs are to
be contained.
• In most cases, the type and extent of testing will be specified by the
code to which the weldment is constructed.
• It is important that the test method employed is capable of disclosing
the defects that are likely to occur.
• The method and extent of testing need only ensure that welds comply
with specifications. Overdoing the amount of testing required will
increase costs.
• As the method of testing becomes more sophisticated, costs increase.
Simple methods of testing should be applied first.
• It costs much less to determine a weld non-compliance by visual
examination than it does to determine that non-compliance by
radiographic examination.
 Testing technician knowledge for a
successful welds
If testing of welds is to be successful, it is
essential that the testing technician knows:
• what defects are likely to occur
• the likely location of these defects within or
adjacent to the weld
• the test method/s which will best disclose
these defects
 Non-destructive testing (NDT)
• Non-destructive testing is carried out by
various processes which do not destroy the
weldment.
• NDT is about examination to ensure freedom
from defects, rather than to determine
mechanical properties.
 Destructive testing (DT)
• DT (or mechanical testing) involves the application of force as
a means of determining the mechanical properties of the
welded joint.
• These tests, by their nature, usually involve testing of the part
to failure; thereby destroying the part being tested.
• Destructive testing methods are usually not suitable as a
means of product inspection, as all the products produced
would be destroyed during testing.
• Destructive testing is usually applied to the proving of welding
procedures, or to the testing of production welded test
plates.
• However, finished weldments may be selected at random
from the production line and tested to failure as a means of
ensuring the integrity of the production process.
 Non-destructive test methods
There are six NDT methods that we will
examine. These are:
• visual inspection
• penetrant inspection
• magnetic particle inspection
• ultrasonic inspection
• radiography
• pressure testing.
 Visual inspection
• Visual inspection is the cheapest, the simplest
and the most widely applied method of
inspection.
• Visual inspection can be used not only to
examine the finished weld, but unlike other
inspection methods, it can be applied at all
stages of the welding process.
 Prior to welding – check the following
• Parent metal defects – such as laminations, cracks,
or surface irregularities.
• Joint fit-up, including the edge preparation – angle
of bevel, root face, root gap, backing material
(where required), alignment of parts and general
fit-up of the joint.
• Joint cleanliness – is the joint as clean as required?
Heavy scale, oxide film, grease, paint and oil are all
sources of weld defects.
• Assembly – whether any special set up is required,
such as jigging, bracing, or cambering.
 During welding – check the following
• Electrodes – compatibility of the electrode type to the weld
metal and joint preparation. This includes a check on the
welding current, size of electrode and speed of deposition.
• Root run – the appearance, penetration (if required) and any
external defects will give a good indication of weld quality.
• Slag removal – ensure that all slag is completely removed
after each run – particularly watch the toes of the root run.
• Inter-run – each run of weld metal is going to be part of the
completed weld, so check each run individually – one bad
run may ruin the whole weld. It is much easier to correct
defects as they occur, than to wait until the weldment is
completed. Watch corners, weld junctions, craters and weld
toes.
 After welding – check the following
• The final appearance of the weld and the
presence of external defects such as undercut,
reinforcement, weld profile, craters
misalignment, porosity, cracks and slag inclusions.
The external appearance of a weld gives a good
indication of its quality.
• Conformity – all welds should be checked against
the drawings and/or specifications to ensure that
they meet the requirements laid down.
 Aids to visual inspection
• Are devices such as fillet gauges, calipers,
other measuring devices and a low powered
(up to 10 x) magnifying glass.
• The major limitation of visual inspection is
that it will disclose only surface defects and
defects which are able to be seen by the
naked eye, e.g. fine surface cracks may not be
readily apparent by visual inspection but may
easily be detected by some other method
 Penetrant inspection
• Penetrant inspection is a test method for
locating any defect open to the surface.
• It is particularly advantageous for inspection
of non-magnetic and non-ferrous materials
and is widely used on stainless steel,
magnesium, aluminium, brass and other
metals of cast or welded construction.
• Basically, two different methods are used: dye
(usually red) penetrant and fluorescent (visible
under ‘black light’) penetrant.
Dye penetrant testing (20 x actual size)
 Testing with dye penetrants
• Penetrant (a suitable dye solution, usually red
in colour) is drawn by capillary action into any
surface discontinuity.
• A developer with a chalky base is then applied
to the surface.
• This chemical dries on contact and is stained
by the dye, which rises to the surface again by
capillary action.
• Pores or cracks are then revealed as red dots
or continuous red lines respectively
 Dye penetrants procedure
The steps involved in this method of inspection
are to:
• thoroughly clean scale, grease etc from the
surface
• apply the penetrant
• allow sufficient penetration time
• remove all excess penetrant from the surface
• apply the developer
• inspect.
Dye penetrant equipment
Testing with fluorescent penetrants
• This is a variant of penetrant testing, in which penetrant that
fluoresces under black light is used.
• Penetrant is applied to the surface to be inspected by dipping,
spraying or brushing and a period of time from five minutes upward
is allowed for the penetrant to enter any small surface opening
through capillary action.
• Excess penetrant is removed from the surface. The surface is dried
and a developer is applied, ultimately to form a film of dry powder
over the surface to act as a ‘blotter’ and to draw the fluorescent
penetrant back from the defects.
• After processing, the surfaces are viewed while illuminated with
high-intensity ultraviolet lights (black lights) in a semi-darkened
area.
• Any defect such as a fine crack is easily recognised by the glowing,
fluorescent line of penetrant.
 Leak testing
• Leak testing of welded containers is an
additional important application of
fluorescent penetrant testing.
• Wherever such containers are of moderate
wall thickness (up to around 10 mm), it is only
necessary to paint one surface, and after
allowing sufficient time, examine the other
surface with a portable black light.
• Leaks such as pores or cracks passing through
the wall are indicated on the uncoated surface
by the brilliant fluorescence of the penetrant.
 General advantages of the penetrant
method
• Relatively simple to operate
• Can be used on non-magnetic materials
• Provides convincing indications to the
Inspector
• No limitations as to size or shape
• Adaptable to a production line method, either
batch or continuous treatment
• Particularly suited to the detection of surface
cracks.
 General limitations of the penetrant
method
• Will only disclose discontinuities open to the
surface.
• The surface of the material must be
impervious to the penetrant (unsuitable for
sintered products).
• Must not react with surface of the material.
• Must not be temperature sensitive.
• Unsuitable where penetrants may cause
contamination.
 Magnetic particle inspection (MPI)
• If a bar magnet is placed beneath a sheet of
paper and iron filings sprinkled onto it, the
filings will arrange themselves to show the
lines of magnetic force flowing between the
north and south poles of the magnet (Fig
below).
• If the magnet is now broken in half, effectively
making two magnets, it will be seen that a
concentration of filings now occurs as the lines
of force come together (Fig below).
 Magnetic particle inspection (MPI)
• Magnetic particle inspection makes use of this, to disclose
surface imperfections in magnetic metals.
• The method is particularly suited to finding surface cracks
and other surface defects in iron and steel components.
• The work piece is ground clean and white background
paint may be applied in some cases.
• The part is magnetised by one of a number of methods.
Such as by an AC yoke or by applying a high current flow
directly to the material surface. The resultant current flow
produces circular magnetic flux lines on the surface of the
material.
 Magnetic particle testing equipment
(a) magnetic coil, (b) permanent magnetic
yolk and (c) magnetic yolk
 MPI PROCEDURE
• The area to be inspected is then covered with fine magnetic
particles, either as a dry powder or in suspension in a liquid.
• This is commonly a light, kerosene-based liquid known as
magnetic ink.
• Where the crack runs across the lines of magnetic force, the
powder will congregate and disclose the defect.
• If, however, the crack runs along the lines of magnetic force,
it is highly unlikely that any indication of the defect will be
seen.
• Once the crack runs at an angle greater than 50º to the
magnetic flux, it will be visible.
• It is common practice to test twice, the second test being
carried out at right angles to the first so as not to miss any
defects that may be present.
Magnetic flux at 50º or greater to crack
Magnetic flux at less than 50º to crack
 NOTE
• For most applications, weldments do not require
demagnetisation after magnetic-particle
inspection.
• A strong magnetic field may, however, interfere
with subsequent machining or arc welding
operations.
• Also, if the magnetised part is to be used in
structures such as an aircraft, it may affect sensitive
instruments.
• Demagnetisation, when required, is accomplished
by drawing the part through a high intensity AC
field coil.
 Ultrasonic testing
• Very high frequency sounds known as ‘ultrasonic
energy’ provide a method for the non-destructive
testing of materials.
• Ultrasonic testing employs waves above the
frequency limit of human audibility and usually in
the range 0.6 to 5 MHz.
• A pulse consisting of a number of these waves is
projected into the specimen under test.
• If a flaw exists in the specimen an echo is reflected
from it and from the type of echo the kind of flaw
can be deduced.
 Ultrasonic equipment
• The equipment comprises an electrical unit which
generates the electrical oscillations, a visual display
unit on which pulse and echo can be seen and probes
which introduce the waves into the specimen and
receive the echo.
• The electrical oscillations are converted into ultrasonic
waves in a transducer.
• To transmit the ultrasonic waves through the metal, a
good contact is required between the probe and test
plate, as the waves will not transmit if there is an air
gap.
• For this reason a thin oil or water film is spread over
the test plate and the probe is slid over this surface.
Ultrasonic equipment
 Ultrasonic Testing
• Materials that can be inspected by this method are carbon
and low alloy steels, aluminium, brass, magnesium, monel,
steel, stainless steel and other non-porous metals.
• The dimensions of the work are usually not critical, suitable
techniques being available for the testing of plate stock as
thin as 1.5 mm and larger structures as long as 6 m.
• Defects can be indicated to the extent that they are actual
mechanical discontinuities such as cracks, laminations,
voids, open welds and segregations.
• Extremely small weld defects can be detected, regardless of
thickness.
 Radiographic testing
• This inspection method relies on the ability of short-
wave radiation, such as x-rays or gamma rays, to
penetrate thick, dense objects which will not transmit
ordinary light.
• This method is a most useful and widely applied non-
destructive testing method and many codes specify
radiographic examination for all or some of the joints in
a weldment.
NOTE Radiography is expensive. It is necessary to visually
inspect the weld prior to radiography. If the weld fails the
visual inspection, it is unnecessary to take a radiograph.
 General principle
• When x-rays or gamma rays fall onto a metal, their passage
is obstructed by the metal and part of the radiation is
absorbed.
• The extent of this absorption depends upon the density
and thickness of the weld.
• If a cavity such as a blowhole or crack exists in the interior
of a weld, the radiation beam will have less metal to pass
through than in a sound weld. Consequently, this region
will absorb fewer rays.
• If we record this variation in absorption on a sensitive film,
it will produce an image that will indicate the presence of
the defect. This image is called a ‘radiograph’ (next Fig).
• The radiation which passes through the specimen strikes
the film behind. The radiation exposes the film so that
regions of lower weld density (which allow radiation to
pass through more readily) appear dark on the
radiograph in comparison with regions of higher weld
density which absorb more of the radiation.
• Thus the defects or discontinuities, being less dense
than the base metal, will appear as darkened regions on
the radiograph.
 X-ray tests
• Cracks, slag, blowholes, lack of fusion and all
internal defects can readily be detected by x-ray
testing.
• In general, the testing procedure consists of
placing the x-ray tube on one side of the piece
being tested and the film on the other.
• The time of exposure may range from a fraction of
a minute to several minutes, depending on the
power of the tube and the thickness of the metal.
• The exposed film is then developed and examined
for defects in the weld.
Gamma radiography
 Safety precautions
• The x-ray or gamma ray operator must be highly trained in the
safe use of radiographic equipment.
• Besides penetrating the human body, these rays have adverse
effects on certain parts of the body. Leukaemia, anaemia and
sterility are the main dangers.
• Factory regulations specify that personnel operating x-ray or
gamma ray equipment must either wear film badges or carry
dosemeters.
• Film badges are supplied by a special service which processes
them after they have been worn for a specified time and reports
on the amount of radiation that the wearer has received.
• A Geiger counter indicating the intensity of radiation is used to
indicate the effectiveness of shielding and the limits of the area
in which it is safe for personnel to work.
 Pressure testing
• Where absolute leak tightness of all joints is essential (such as in
tanks, pressure vessels and pipe lines), the soundness of the weld
may be tested by the application of internal pressure.
• Leaks are discovered by observation or by loss of pressure. The
pressure medium may be water, oil, air, or gas; each one of these
having a definite field of application.
• Oil, particularly when thin or hot, will frequently penetrate leaks that
do not show up with water under an equal pressure.
• Air will also leak out more readily than water and hydrogen will
escape where air will not.
• Wherever possible when testing to high pressures, hydrostatic (rather
than pneumatic) testing should be used, as liquids are incompressible
and will not result in a violent explosion should the vessel fail.
• Pneumatic testing is usually restricted to low volume, low pressure
tests.
Summary of NDT methods
Summary of NDT methods
 Destructive testing
Destructive testing can be divided into two areas.
• laboratory-type mechanical tests to measure the properties of
weld metal and the heat-affected parent metal
• workshop-type mechanical tests to prove weld metal
acceptability and freedom from significant defects.
• Weld specimens for testing can be obtained as extensions of
actual welded joints, as separate but representative welds
carried out either before or concurrently with actual work, or
from welded test plates.
• Mechanical tests provide information about the ‘mechanical
properties’ of a metal. Mechanical testing machines are normally
situated in a laboratory and operated by specialist personnel.
Consequently the welding operator is more concerned with
results than the actual tests. The welder should be aware of the
tests available and the properties being tested.
 Properties
The properties which these tests will disclose are as follows.
• Ductility– The ability of a material to be permanently deformed without
failure, ie to be bent or drawn. Brittleness is a term used to describe a
lack of ductility.
• Toughness– The ability of a metal to withstand shock loading. A tough
metal has a good resistance to impact.
• Hardness– The resistance a metal has to forcible penetration by another
substance. A hard metal resists scratching or wear.
• Malleability– The property of a metal that enables it to be rolled or
hammered into thinner sheets or shaped by forging. Most metals are
more malleable when hot.
• Elasticity–The ability of a metal to stretch and then return to its original
shape and size when the forces causing it to stretch are released.
Elasticity and ductility must not be confused.
• Tenacity(tensile strength) – The ability of a metal to resist a force that is
acting directly to pull it apart.
 Purpose of mechanical properties
• The mechanical properties of metals
determine their suitability for different
purposes.
• High tensile properties are necessary for some
uses, whereas hardness and wear resistance
are required for other applications.
• Tests are also used to measure the effects of
heat treatment or mechanical working to
which the metal has been subjected, thereby
assisting in the control of manufacturing
processes.
 Laboratory type destructive tests
Four types of mechanical tests are commonly used
to provide information on material properties.
These are:
• tensile tests
• hardness tests
• impact tests
• fatigue tests.
 Tensile tests
• In this type of test, a specially prepared
sample of the metal is subjected to a steadily
increasing load acting to pull it apart and is
stressed until failure occurs.
• During the test, both the load and the
increase in length are constantly noted and
the results are plotted on a graph ( next Fig).
Stress/strain diagram for tensile testing of
low carbon steel
A tensile test will disclose information about the test specimen
regarding its:
• ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
• yield strength
• elasticity
• ductility.
Ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
• UTS is the greatest tensile force that a test piece can withstand
prior to failure.
Yield strength
• Some metals (particularly low carbon steels) exhibit a noticeable
yield point during tensile testing.
• When this point is reached, the metal will be seen to continue to
stretch with no increase in load. In some cases the load will even
decrease.
• Not all metals exhibit a noticeable yield point; for example, it is
not evident in high strength steels.
 Elasticity
• When the load is first applied to a tensile test
specimen, the increase in length is directly
proportional to the load.
• If this load is released, the test specimen will
return to its original length, provided that the
elastic limit of the material has not been
exceeded.
• Once the elastic limit of the material is
exceeded, permanent deformation will begin
to occur.
 Ductility
• Ductility will enable the metal to stretch prior to failure, due to
the tensile force being applied.
• Ductility is an important property as it enables metals to be
bent or rolled during fabrication and to withstand shrinkage
forces due to welding.
• The ductility of the metal is expressed as a percentage as this
allows for direct comparison between metals. This percentage
can be calculated as either:
• % elongation, or
• % reduction of area.
Prior to tensile testing, the specimen is marked at two points and
the distance between them is noted as the ‘gauge length’.
Tensile test specimens
• Once the test piece has been stressed to
failure, the two pieces are placed back
together and the increase in the gauge length
is noted (see Fig 7.32). These two distances
are used to calculate ductility using one of the
following formulas.
 Example 1
• Consider a test piece of a gauge length of 50
mm which stretched 12 mm prior to failure.
 Example 2
• Consider a specimen whose original diameter
was 10 mm, where this diameter was reduced
to 8 mm at the point of fracture.
 Hardness tests
• The hardness of a material is an important property in itself, but
measurement of hardness will also provide a useful indicator with
respect to tensile strength, ductility and impact resistance.
• In general, the harder of two metals of similar composition has the
higher tensile strength, lower ductility and more resistance to abrasive
wear.
• High hardness also indicates low impact strength, although some steels
when properly heat treated have both high hardness and good impact
strength.
• To the welder, the hardness of the metal will give an indication of its
weldability. Generally the harder the metal, the lower its weldability.
The hardness of a weld’s HAZ is important as it can give a reliable
indication of susceptibility to underbead cracking and suitability of a
welding procedure.
• There are four main methods of hardness testing, three of which
involve measuring the resistance that a metal has to indentation.
 Brinell hardness test
• The Brinell test employs the use of a hardened
steel ball of 10 mm diameter which is pressed
into the surface of the metal with a load of 3
000 kg.
• The diameter of the impression is measured
with a special microscope and the reading is
converted by consulting a table.
• Soft iron is about 100 BHN and file-hard steel
about 600 BHN.
• Brinell readings are listed as BHN (Brinell
Hardness Number).
 Rockwell hardness tests
• In the Rockwell method of hardness testing, the
penetrator is smaller and the loads are lighter than
in the Brinell method.
• When testing comparatively hard materials, a
diamond cone is pressed into the metal with a load
of 150 kg.
• The depth of impression is indicated on a dial and
the reading is referred to the ‘Rockwell C’ scale of
hardness.
• To determine the hardness of softer metals the
diamond is replaced by a steel ball of 1.5 mm
diameter and a load of 100 kg. The reading is then
Hardness testing by the ‘Rockwell B’
method
Rockwell hardness tester
 Vickers hardness test
• The Vickers hardness test consists of pressing the point of a
square-based diamond pyramid into the surface of a specimen
with a predetermined load.
• The load is maintained for a set period and then automatically
released.
• The surface impression appears as a dark square on a light
background.
• Measurements are taken across the diagonals of the impression
by means of a special measuring microscope and the actual
hardness figure is then obtained by referring to a chart, or
calculated by the following formula.
 Shore scleroscope hardness test
• Another method of testing hardness is to use a Shore
direct reading scleroscope.
• This instrument consists of a small diamond-pointed
hammer, weighing 2 grams, which is allowed to fall
freely from a height of 254 mm down a glass tube
onto the test specimen.
• The distance that the hammer rebounds after it
contacts the specimen can be read on the scale on the
machine. The hardness of the metal as indicated by
the scale number will range from 0–140.
• The higher the number, the harder the metal. A high
carbon steel will indicate about 95 points on the scale.
 Impact testing
• Impact testing measures the toughness of a metal, i.e. its ability to
withstand shock loading.
• It has been found that the ability of a material to withstand impact
depends not only on the velocity of the impact, but also on the
temperature of the material and the presence or otherwise of notches
in the material.
• Certain steels become quite brittle at low temperatures, as do the
welds which join them. It may be necessary to carry out impact tests at
various temperatures to fully establish a metal’s suitability for use.
• Tests may be carried out on parent metal, weld metal, or the weld
HAZ.
• In the impact test, a weighted pendulum swinging from a
predetermined height strikes a notched test specimen. The distance
that the pendulum swings through after fracturing the specimen is
dependent on the amount of energy required to break the specimen.
• This distance is recorded by a pointer, the energy absorbed being
measured in Joules.
 Impact testing
• Common impact tests differ in the dimensions
for the test piece and the way in which each is
supported.
• In the Izod test, the specimen is held vertically
in a vice by one end only. The hammer strikes
the end protruding from the vice.
• The Charpy test employs a specimen which is
supported at both ends, lying in the horizontal
position. The sharp end of the hammer strikes
the test piece in the centre.
• Impact testing is illustrated in next Fig.
Impact testing (a) Izod and (b) Charpy
 Fatigue testing
• A knowledge of the metal’s tensile properties makes possible the
design and fabrication of a structure that will support a steady load
pulling in one direction.
• These properties, however, do not indicate the strength a metal will
have if used in a structure where the load is applied first in one
direction and then in another.
• When alternating load is applied, the loading on the component
alternates between compression and tension.
• Alternating stresses are present in such components as axles,
connecting rods, transmission shafts, boiler drums and pressurised
storage tanks.
• Metals will fail at a lower stress under a changing load than if the load
were steady. Failure under a cyclic load is called ‘fatigue failure’.
• Fatigue failure is invariably triggered off by some surface imperfection
such as inclusions near or on the surface, undercut, overlap, excessive
build-up, or even grinding marks. Failures start at the surface as tiny
cracks which spread into the metal until failure occurs.
 Fatigue testing
Fatigue tests are made by subjecting a test
specimen to varying loads. Tests may be made by:
• bending the specimen alternately in one
direction and then the other
• applying and removing tensile loads.
For practical purposes, 10 000 000 cycles is taken
as the number of reversals which a specimen
must withstand to establish the endurance limit. It
is considered that a metal able to withstand a
given stress for this number of cycles will continue
to do so indefinitely.
 Practical type destructive tests
• These can be easily carried out in most
workshops as no sophisticated equipment is
required. Practical tests most commonly used
to examine weld quality are:
• bend tests
• nick-break tests
• fillet weld break tests
• macro testing
 Bend testing
• Bend tests will give an indication of the ductility of the metal, but
bend tests are primarily used to disclose defects such as lack of
fusion or inclusions in the weld.
• Tests may be free bend tests, where bending is free to occur at any
point, or guided bend tests where the location of the bend is closely
controlled.
When bend testing weld specimens, three types of tests are used:
• root bend test
• face bend test
• side bend test.
The tests are identified by stating the surface of the weld test specimen
that is placed in tension.
• For thinner plates, root and face bends are common.
• When welds in thick plates are being tested, side bend tests are
usually employed.
Bend testing (a) face bend, (b) root bend
 Nick-break tests
• The nick-break test is used to reveal the presence of
internal defects such as porosity, slag inclusions and
lack of fusion.
• This test may also give an indication of the toughness
of the metal, as some distortion may take place prior
to fracture.
• In the nick-break test, the weld reinforcement is not
removed and the specimen is not dressed in any way.
• Saw cuts are made at both sides of the weld and the
test specimen is supported on edge and broken by
pressing or by sharp blows. Fig next
• illustrates a typical nick-break specimen.
Nick-break testing
 Fillet weld break tests
• The fillet weld break test is used to reveal the
presence of internal defects such as slag
inclusions, lack of root or sidewall fusion and
porosity or wormholes.
• The completed fillet weld test is located on a
suitable flat surface, as shown in next Fig and
fractured by steady loading or by blows.
• Acceptance standards may be obtained by
reference to the relevant code.
Fillet break testing
 Macro examination
• Both fillet and butt welded structures are macro tested to show the
weld, the fusion zone and surrounding area.
• A small cross section is removed from a competed weld and polished
using various grades of grit paper until its surface has a mirror finish.
• The surface is then etched using an acid solution. This highlights:
 the weld
 the number of runs used to complete the joint
 the level of penetration and fusion zone
 the HAZ
 any defects.
• Different etching solutions are used for different metals. It is important
that thermal cutting processes are not used to cut the test specimen
from the plate, as these will recrystallise the metal adjacent to the cut,
which when polished and etched will give misleading information
about the grain structure.
Macro testing
 Weld procedures
• The objective in establishing welding
procedures is to develop the best and most
economic means of producing welds to a set
standard.
• Once a suitable procedure has been
established and proved suitable for use and
providing that suitably trained and qualified
welders are employed, the welds that result
should consistently prove fit for purpose.
 Definitions
• Welder certification – Shows the ability of a welder to pass an
examination in welding competency, to a minimum acceptance
standard (eg AS 1796). It does not indicate current competency nor the
welder’s ability to complete specific weldments to code requirements.
Welder certification is portable.
• Welder qualification – The ability of a welder to execute welding to a
given procedure specification, at a particular place and/or time, on a
particular type of weldment. Generally, welder qualification is not
portable and becomes redundant at the end of a contract or after a
specific period of time.
• Welding procedure – A specific, pre-planned course of action followed
to complete a particular weldment. Procedures may be informal
(passed to welders verbally) or formal such as written instructions to
be followed.
 The necessity for welding procedures
A welding procedure provides:
• information stating the precise methods of completing
weldments
• clients with relevant information to satisfy themselves that
the weldments are correctly welded and quality is assured
• the basis of in-house inspection, client inspection and use
by the inspecting authority and a means of quality
assurance
• a start point for investigation and repair in the event of
defective welding that may occur during fabrication or
failure in subsequent service
• basic information required for subsequent repair
procedures.
 Obtaining the welding procedure
specification
There are three ways of obtaining a welding
procedure specification:
• use of an existing procedure
• use of a ‘pre-qualified’ procedure
• welding procedure approval.