OCR 21 Century Science

st

Unit P1a Revision

The earth in the universe
The eight planets of our Solar System 12/06/24

Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune

As well as the eight planets, the solar system is also made

up of asteroids, dwarf planets, comets and moons
Different Orbits 12/06/24

Mercury = 88 days
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars = 687 days
Mars
Jupiter
Pluto =
Saturn 90,500 days
Uranus
Neptune
Pluto
 Asteroids
12/06/24

An “asteroid belt” lies between Mars and

Jupiter. But what is an asteroid?
 Comets
12/06/24

Comets are balls of dust and frozen

gas. They have very elliptical orbits:

Notice how the tail always points away from the sun!
 The Solar System summarised
12/06/24

What makes up our solar system? Complete the following mind

map with what you now about each object:

The solar system

 Solar systems, galaxies and the Universe 12/06/24

Our planet (around 13,000km diameter and 4500 million

years old) is pretty small compared to...
OUR SUN (100 times wider
and 4.6 billion years old),
which is small compared to…

THE MILKY WAY, which

contains at least 200 billion
THE UNIVERSE, which stars and is 100,000 light
contains billions of galaxies and years across, which is small
is 14,000 million years old. compared to…
 How to make a solar system
12/06/24

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
 Stage 1: Nebulae
12/06/24

A nebulae is a collection of dust, gas and rock.

Some examples of nebulae…

Stage 2: Throw the nebula together
12/06/24

Gravity will slowly pull these

particles together…

As they move inwards their

gravitational potential energy
is converted into heat and a
big object (PROTOSTAR) or
smaller objects (planets,
asteroids etc) are formed
 Stage 3: Make a star
12/06/24

In a star the forces of

gravitational attraction
pulling the particles inwards
are _________ by forces
acting outwards due to the
huge __________ inside the
star.
Stars are basically ________ reactors that use _______
as a fuel. During its main sequence a star will release
energy by combining hydrogen and helium nuclei (light
elements) into _________ elements.

Any element in space that is heavier than helium is

thought to have been made in a star.
Words – heavier, balanced, hydrogen, nuclear, temperatures
 Observing the Universe
12/06/24

All of these methods rely on detecting radiation from stars.

 The Light Year
12/06/24

Distances in space are so big that they are measured in units

called “light years”:

1 light year = the distance

travelled by light in one yar

Q. If light travels through space (i.e. A vacuum) at 300,000

km/s how far is one light year?

Because of this, when we see stars in the night sky we are

actually seeing them as they were in the past.
 Distances in space
12/06/24

The Sun, our closest star, is 1.6x10-5 light years

away from us.

The next closest star, Proxima

Centauri (4.2 light years away)

The centre of our galaxy, the Milky Way, is

around 26,000 light years away.

The Andromeda Galaxy (our closest galaxy)

– approximately 2.5 million light years away
Measuring distance using brightness
12/06/24

When I look at these stars some appear brighter than

others. This because they are either brighter stars or
closer to me.
For example, the star Antares is 10,000 times brighter
than the sun but it is 500 light years away from me, so
it is only the 15th brightest star in the night sky.
 Measuring distances to stars
12/06/24

1) Relative Brightness
The further away a Distant
star is the dimmer it stars
is. Simple. Nearby star

2) Parallax

Parallax is the
apparent change in
position of closer
stars due to the
Earth moving around
the sun.
Problems in Measuring Distances
12/06/24

1) Light pollution and other

atmospheric conditions can
interfere with observing stars:

2) Stars are simply very far away so the

angles involved in using techniques like
parallax are very small:
How our Earth and the Sun
12/06/24

compare to others…
12/06/24
12/06/24
12/06/24
12/06/24
 How did the universe begin?
12/06/24

Scientists believe that the universe began by a “big bang”

around 14 billion years ago:
 12/06/24

Evidence about the origins of

the universe…
 12/06/24

Source of
light “Spectra”
 12/06/24

If you pass the light through a gas something

different is seen…

helium

Some wavelengths of light

are absorbed by the gas –
an “absorption spectrum”.
 12/06/24
If the light source is moving away the absorption
spectra look a little different…

Before

helium
helium

After
 12/06/24
The absorption lines have all been “shifted”
towards the longer wavelength end (red end)…
Before
This is called red
shift. The faster
the light source
moves the further
its light will be
“shifted”

After
A similar effect happens with sound
– this is called “The Doppler
Effect”
Red Shift simplified
12/06/24

Basically, if I walk towards you I’ll

look slightly more blue. Then, if I
walk away from you, I’ll look slightly
more red!!

Let’s try it…

12/06/24
12/06/24
 12/06/24
Light from different stars and from the
edge of the universe also shows this “red-
shift”. This suggests that everything in
the universe is moving away from a single
point.

This is the BIG

BANG theory
 Red shift summary
12/06/24

Light from other galaxies has a longer _________ than

expected. This shows that these galaxies are moving ____
from us very quickly. This effect is seen to a greater
extent in galaxies that are _______ away from us. This
indicates that the further away the galaxy is, the ______
it is moving.

This evidence seems to suggest that everything in the

universe is moving away from a single point, and that this
process started around 15 _____ years ago. This is the
____ ________ Theory.

Words to use – faster, away, big bang,

billion, wavelength, further
 Hubble’s Law
12/06/24

The speed at which galaxies are

moving away from us is proportional
to their distance from us.

In other words, the further away

they are, the faster they go.

Edwin Hubble
1889-1953
 Big Bang Theory
12/06/24

Some scientists have explained that red shift can actually be used to
support the Big Bang Theory – this explanation is based around the rates
of expansion and contraction of different galaxies. If our neighbouring
galaxy is expanding at a different rate to the Milky Way then it will appear
red or blue-shifted.

So Mr President, red shift

shows us that galaxies are
moving and therefore we
assume that space itself is
expanding. Elementary!

Stephen Hawking, 1942 -

12/06/24
 The end of the Universe
12/06/24

There are some theories about how the

universe will end but its difficult to tell
due to difficulties in measuring objects
that are so far away:

“The big crunch” – if there is too much mass (i.e. too much
matter) the universe will collapse under its own gravity. It
may then do another “big bang” – this is the “oscillating
universe” theory.

“Expanding Universe” – if there isn’t enough mass in the

universe then it will just keep on expending forever.

If there is just the right mass in the universe then it will

reach a fixed size.
 The End of the Universe
12/06/24

Basically, how the universe will end

depends on its “energy-mass density”.

Stephen Hawking
Now Open universe
Size of universe

Critical
density

Closed
universe

Time
OCR 21 Century Science
st

Unit P1b Revision

The changing earth
 Evidence for the age of the Earth
12/06/24

Scientists once thought that the Earth was only 6000 years
old. Rocks have provided lots of evidence for the world being
older.
1) Erosion

2) Craters

3) Mountains

4) Fossils

5) Folding

6) Radioactive dating
The Earth’s age must be older than the oldest rocks, which
are around 4,000,000,000 years old.
 Continental Drift
12/06/24

Look at the coastlines of South

America and Africa. I wonder of
they used to fit together…

Alfred
Wegener

I’m going to call this my

Theory of Continental Drift
 Tectonic theory
12/06/24

What’s my evidence for this? Three things:

1) The “jigsaw fit”
2) Each continent has similar rocks and fossils
3) Each continent has similar animal species
 12/06/24
Another Example of Continental Drift
The formation of mountain ranges can be explained by
tectonic theory. Consider the Himalayas at the top of India:

This is where
India is now

This is where
India was millions
of years ago

If it wasn’t for processes like this then, if you think

about it, continents would eventually disappear due to
erosion. Fascinating.
 Tectonic theory
12/06/24

The Evidence:
1) Some continents look like they used to “fit”
together
2) Similar rock patterns and fossil records

The Problems:
Wegener couldn't explain how continental drift
happened or provide evidence so nobody
believed him. Also, he wasn’t a geologist so he
had no credibility and there were other
explanations for the same evidence.

The Answer:

Scientists discovered 50 years later that the Earth generates massive

amounts of heat through radioactive decay in the core. This heat
generated convection currents in the mantle causing the crust to move.

Conclusion – scientists now believe Wegener’s Tectonic Theory

Movement of the Lithosphere
12/06/24

The Earth’s LITHOSPHERE (i.e. the _______) is split

up into different sections called ________ plates:

These plates are moving ______ from each other a few

centimetres every _______. They can slide past each
other, move apart from each other or move towards
each other, causing volcanoes and _________.
Words – earthquakes, crust, apart, tectonic, year
 Sea Floor Spreading
12/06/24

Earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions can
Igneous Rock be common here

Oceanic Crust

Mantle

Convection
Currents Magma
 12/06/24
Magnetic Patterns in Sea Floor Spreading

The Earth’s magnetic field swaps poles every million years.

The above picture shows those changes recorded over time in
rocks on the sea floor and provides evidence for long-term sea
floor spreading.
More on Plate Movements
12/06/24

Subduction

Thick, less dense

continental plate
Thin, dense oceanic plate

Convection
Currents
 The Structure of the Earth
12/06/24

A thin crust - 10-

100km thick and
not very dense

A mantle – extends
almost halfway to the
centre, hot and dense

A core – made of molten

nickel and iron. Outer
part is liquid and inner
part is solid. Gets hot
due to radioactive decay.

How do we know? A lot of the evidence for these facts

comes from studying earthquakes (seismic waves)…
 An introduction to Waves
12/06/24

A Wave is a “movement of energy” but NOT a transfer of

matter
 Transverse vs. longitudinal waves
12/06/24

Transverse waves

Displacement
are when the
displacement is at
right angles to the
direction of the
wave. Direction
Examples – light, other EM waves, some seismic waves
Displacement Longitudinal waves
are when the
displacement is
parallel to the
direction of the
Direction wave…
Examples – sound, some seismic waves
 Seismic waves 12/06/24

Earthquakes travel as waves through the Earth – we call them

SEISMIC WAVES. There are two types:

P waves:
1) They are longitudinal so they cause the ground
to move up and down
2) They can pass through solids and liquids
3) They go faster through more dense material

S waves:
1) They are transverse so they cause the ground
to move from right to left
2) They ONLY pass through solids
3) They are slower than P waves
4) They go faster through more dense material
 Seismic waves 12/06/24

These P waves are

being reflected at the
crust

These P waves travel

through the Earth and
are refracted when
they pass through a
medium

These S waves cannot

travel through the
outer core as they only
The paths of these waves are all go through solids – this
curved because density is tells us that the outer
gradually changing core is liquid
Locating Earthquakes
12/06/24

By measuring the time

it takes the wave to
travel to these
locations the location
of the earthquake can
be found.
 Wave definitions…
12/06/24

1) Amplitude – this is
“how high” the wave is:

2) Wavelength () – this is the

distance between two
corresponding points on the
wave and is measured in metres:

3) Frequency – this is how many waves pass by

every second and is measured in Hertz (Hz)

4) Speed – this is how fast the wave travels and is

measured in metres per second (m/s)
 Distance, Speed
12/06/24

and Time for waves D

Speed = distance (in metres)

time (in seconds) S T
1) A water wave travels 200 metres in 40 seconds. What is its speed?

2) Another wave covers 2km in 1,000 seconds. What is its speed?

3) Sound travels at around 330m/s. How long does it take to travel one
mile (roughly 1,600m)?

4) Light travels at a speed of 300,000,000m/s. How long would it take to

travel around the world if the diameter at the equator is around
 Drawing waves
12/06/24

1) Low amplitude, low frequency:

2) Low amplitude, high frequency:

3) High amplitude, low frequency:

4) High amplitude, high frequency:

 The Wave Equation
12/06/24

All E-M waves obey the Wave Equation:

Wave speed (v) = frequency (f) x wavelength ()

in m/s in Hz in m

Notice that frequency is

V inversely proportional to
wavelength – if wavelength
goes up, frequency goes down

f 
 12/06/24
Some example wave equation questions
1) A water wave has a frequency of 2Hz and a wavelength
of 0.3m. How fast is it moving?
0.6m/s

2) A water wave travels through a pond with a speed of

1m/s and a frequency of 5Hz. What is the wavelength
of the waves?
0.2m

3) The speed of sound is 330m/s (in air). When Dave

hears this sound his ear vibrates 660 times a second.
What was the wavelength of the sound? 0.5m

4) Purple light has a wavelength of around 6x10-7m and a

frequency of 5x1014Hz. What is the speed of purple
light? 3x108m/s
OCR 21 Century Science
st

Unit P2a Revision

Electromagnetic radiation
 Radiation – the basics
12/06/24

Lots of objects (“sources”) emit radiation. For example,

consider the sun. The sun, amongst others, emits light and
heat:
Wow it’s hot here!

I’m not so
bad thanks

When radiation hits a surface it is usually either

absorbed, reflected or transmitted, or a combination of
these things.
 Light
12/06/24

White light is a mixture of colours:

RED LIGHT is made

of “low energy
photons”

PURPLE LIGHT is made

of “high energy photons”
12/06/24
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
12/06/24

Each type of radiation shown in the electromagnetic spectrum has a

different wavelength and a different frequency:

High frequency, Low frequency,

____ energy ________ energy
Gamma rays X-rays Ultra violet Visible light Infra red Microwaves Radio/TV

γ
Each of these types travels at the same speed through a _______
(300,000km/s), and different wavelengths are absorbed by different
surfaces (e.g. infra red is absorbed very well by ___________ surfaces).
This absorption may heat the material up (like infra red and _______) or
cause an alternating current (like in a __ _______).

Words – black, microwaves, low, high, TV aerial, vacuum

 Photons
12/06/24

Light (and the other types of EM radiation) travel in “packets”

called photons:

Here comes a photon…

And another…
And another…

Higher frequency radiation (i.e.

gamma and x rays) consist of
photons of higher energy.
 Intensity of light and heat
12/06/24

The heat here is

very intense!

The heat
here isn’t so
bad... Why?

When a body absorbs radiation the amount of heat it

gains depends on the intensity (power per square metre
per second) and the time of the exposure.
 An example question
12/06/24

Which of these surfaces would warm up the quickest when

receiving infra red photons from the sun?

What factors are affecting the answer?

 Intensity
12/06/24

Clearly, the intensity of radiation received by an object

decreases the further out the object is. This is due to two
things:

1) The radiation “spreads out” in a circle

2) It is also absorbed by the medium it travels through
 Ionisation
12/06/24

Some types of radiation are dangerous because they “ionise” atoms – in

other words, they change atoms by turning them into _____ by “knocking
off” __________:

Ionisation causes chemical reactions which cause _____ in living tissue to

mutate, usually causing _______. High doses can destroy cells completely,
causing radiation sickness. This takes a lot of ______ so only high energy
radiations like ________, x rays and ultra violet can do it.

Words – energy, gamma, electrons, ions, cancer, cells

 Recap on absorbing radiation
12/06/24

Who would warm up the quickest when receiving infra red

photons from the sun?

What would happen of either of these

people absorbed too much heat?
 Dangers of Mobile Phones
12/06/24

Many people are concerned with the possible

dangers of using mobile phones, especially for
children.

Your task:
Find out about some of the research that has taken place in
the last 20 years over the use of mobile phones, including:
1) Some evidence that using them is dangerous
2) Other evidence that it isn’t
3) Whether or not living near mobile phone masts is dangerous
4) How coming to an overall conclusion can be difficult
How do Microwaves heat food?
12/06/24

How does the design of a microwave oven protect the user

from harm?
12/06/24
 Introduction to Radioactivity
12/06/24

Some substances are classed as “radioactive” – this means

that they are unstable and continuously give out radiation:

Radiation

The nucleus is more stable after emitting some gamma

radiation – this is called “radioactive decay”. Increased
exposure to gamma radiation can cause cancer or cell death.
 12/06/24
Warning the Public about UV Dangers
Over the last few years the public has received many warnings
about the dangers of ultraviolet radiation:
12/06/24
 Ozone
12/06/24

Ozone is a chemical (O3) in the atmosphere that absorbs

harmful UV rays from the sun. This causes chemical reactions
in the atmosphere. Unfortunately, it’s getting thinner:

Diagram showing the quantity Global production of CFCs

of ozone in different parts of over the last 60 years –
the southern hemisphere notice the change!
 Suncream
12/06/24

Ultra violet radiation in sunshine can be dangerous and cause

skin cancer, cataracts and premature skin aging.

It is recommended that you spend no more than 20

minutes in the sun on a sunny day. However, you
could also use suncream:

Of course, wearing clothes always helps!

Protection against harmful radiation
12/06/24

Physical barriers can be used to absorb radiation, e.g.

A lead screen Containment structures around a

protecting from x-rays nuclear reactor

The fact that x-rays are

absorbed by hard substances
makes them very useful:
OCR 21 Century Science
st

Unit P2b Revision

EM radiation 2
 Principal Frequency
12/06/24

All objects emit radiation of some kind. The “principle

frequency” of that radiation depends on the object’s
temperature. For example, consider a Bunsen burner:

Blue is a higher frequency than yellow light – objects that

are “blue hot” are often hotter than “yellow hot”
 The Greenhouse Effect
12/06/24

We get heat
from the sun: A lot of this heat is
_______ back into space.

However, most of it is kept

inside the Earth by a layer of
gases (e.g. carbon dioxide and
______) that prevent the heat
escaping by _______ and then
re-radiating it back again.

The Earth reflects back radiation with a lower principal

_______ that the radiation it receives from the sun. This
radiation basically causes the earth to warm up – this is called
“_______ ________” or the “Greenhouse Effect”.
Words – methane, global warming, reflected, absorbing, frequency
 Global Warming
12/06/24

Carbon dioxide, methane and water vapour are all greenhouse gases but
they are only present in small amounts. However, recently this balance has
been getting “upset” causing this:

Facts:
1) The 10 warmest years
of the last century
have all occurred
within the last 15
years
2) Sea level has risen by
between 12 and 24cm
in the last 100 years
3) Rainfall has risen by
1%
 Global Warming Predictions
12/06/24

Data taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Global_Warming_Predictions.png

 The Effects of Global Warming
12/06/24

The following things could happen as a result of global warming:

1) Food – it will be impossible to

grow crops in particular regions

2) More extreme weather conditions

due to increased convection and larger
amounts of water vapour

3) Flooding of low-lying land

caused by ice caps melting
and expansion of water
The Carbon Cycle
12/06/24

2. Plants and algae

release CO2 through
respiration
CO2 in air
1. CO2 is taken in
by plants and
5. Burning algae for
fossil fuels photosynthesis
also releases and turned into
CO2 4. Animals carbohydrates,
release CO2 fats and proteins
through
respiration

3. The carbon taken in

by plants is then eaten
by animals and the
animals that eat them
 The Carbon Dioxide Balance
12/06/24

Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere have remained

balanced due to the carbon cycle. However, over the last 200
years the level of CO2 in the atmosphere has risen due to
activities like:

1) Deforestation, which takes away

some of the trees that remove carbon
dioxide

2) Burning fossil fuels, which releases more carbon

into the atmosphere that was previously “locked up”
 Reflecting Radio waves
12/06/24

Some radio waves are refracted and then reflected off the
atmosphere and suffer little absorption, which is useful as
they can travel further distances.
 Using Satellites with microwaves
12/06/24

Microwaves are used

to communicate with
satellites as they are
not absorbed by the
atmosphere
 Analogue vs. Digital
12/06/24

Analogue signals (like talking or +

music) continually vary in
amplitude and/or frequency
-
1 Digital signals, however, are either
off or on, and the information is sent
0 in a series of pulses

There are two main advantages of digital:

1) More channels can be sent down the same cable – “multiplexing”
2) Better quality, because a digital signal can be amplified without
amplifying the extra noise:
 Transmitting information
12/06/24

EM waves can also be used as “carrier waves” in order to send a signal:

Wave is
Signal Carrier wave Modulated wave Transmitter
demodulated
(“decoded”) back
into a signal

Light signals can also

be sent down optical
fibres where they
travel for long
distances with little
absorption:
 Using Light to send Signals
12/06/24

Morse code is a signal that consists of

short bursts and long bursts and
therefore is classed as a “digital”
signal as each message can be one of
only two forms. These signals could be
relayed between ships over long
distances.

Modern signals can be sent by radio or electric signals

instead. What are the advantages of these methods over
using light?
 Storing Digital Signals
12/06/24

One of the advantages of digital signals is that they can be

stored and processed easily by computers.

Data is measured in units called “bytes”. 1 Byte = 8

bits, and is roughly the amount of data needed to
store one character of text.

Clearly, the large a file size, the more bytes it contains and
therefore the higher quality the sound or image is.
OCR 21 Century Science
st

Unit P3a Revision

Sustainable energy
 Energy Consumption
12/06/24

The demand for energy is predicted to rise by a large amount

in the next few decades:

What issues will this rise in demand cause?

 Fuels
12/06/24

A “fuel” is something that can be burned to release heat and

light energy. The main examples are:

Coal, oil and gas are called “fossil fuels”. In

other words, they were made from fossils.
 Some definitions…
12/06/24

A renewable energy source is clearly one that can be _______

(“renew = make again”), e.g. _____, solar power, biogas etc.

A ___________ energy source is one that when it has been

used it is gone forever. The main examples are ____, oil and
gas (which are called ______ ____, as they are made from
fossils), and nuclear fuel, which is non-renewable but NOT a
fossil fuel.
Electricity is called a “________ source” because it is
converted from other forms – what would these forms be in
batteries, wind turbines and solar panels?

Words – non-renewable, coal, fossil

fuels, wood, renewed, secondary
 Pollution
12/06/24

When a fuel is burned the two main waste products are _____
dioxide and ________ dioxide.
Carbon dioxide is a _________ ___ and helps cause _______
_________. This is produced when any fossil fuels are
burned.
Sulphur dioxide, when dissolved in ________, causes ______
_____. This is mainly a problem for ___ power stations.
Nuclear power stations do not produce these pollutants
because they don’t ____ fossil fuels.

Words – sulphur, coal, global warming, carbon,

acid rain, greenhouse gas, rainwater, burn
 Using Electricity
12/06/24

Basically, electrical devices are used to transfer electrical

energy to the environment:

+ -

This light bulb will transfer

light and heat to the
surroundings.
 Energy and Power
12/06/24

The POWER RATING of an appliance is simply how much

energy it uses every second.

In other words, 1 Watt = 1 Joule per second

E = Energy (in joules)

E
P = Power (in watts)
T = Time (in seconds)

P T
 Some example questions
12/06/24

1) What is the power rating of a light bulb that transfers

60W
120 joules of energy in 2 seconds?

2) What is the power of an electric fire that transfers

2KW
10,000J of energy in 5 seconds?

3) Rob runs up the stairs in 5 seconds. If he transfers

1,000,000J of energy in this time what is his power 0.2MW
rating?

4) How much energy does a 150W light bulb transfer in a) 150J,

one second, b) one minute? 9KJ
5) Jonny’s brain needs energy supplied to it at a rate of
40W. How much energy does it need during a 50 minute 120KJ
physics lesson?

6) Lloyd’s brain, being more intelligent, only needs energy at

a rate of about 20W. How much energy would his brain 630MJ
use in a normal day?
 Power
12/06/24

Power is “the rate of doing work”.

The amount of power being used in
an electrical circuit is given by: P

Power = voltage x current

in W in V in A V I

We can use this equation to analyse power stations:

1) A transformer gives out 10A at a voltage of 50V. What is 500W
its power output?
2) An electric fire has a power rating of 2KW. If it runs on a
8.7A
voltage of 230V what is the current?
3) Electricity is transmitted along some lines in the National
Grid at 400KV. If the current is 1KA what would be the 400MW
power through the wire?
 The Cost of Electricity
12/06/24

Electricity is measured in units called “kilowatt hours” (kWh).

The kilowatt hour is a unit of energy but the Joule is too small
to count so we use the KWh instead. For example…

A 3kW fire left on for 1 hour uses 3kWh of energy

A 1kW toaster left on for 2 hours uses 2kWh

A 0.5kW hoover left on for 4 hours uses __kWh

A 200W TV left on for 5 hours uses __kWh

A 2kW kettle left on for 15 minutes uses __kWh

 The Cost of Electricity
12/06/24

To work out how much a device costs we do the following:

Cost of electricity = Power (kW) x time (h) x cost per kWh (p)

For example, if electricity costs 8p per unit calculate the cost

of the following…

1) A 2kW fire left on for 3 hours 48p

2) A 0.2kW TV left on for 5 hours 8p

3) A 0.1kW light bulb left on for 10 hours 8p

4) A 0.5kW hoover left on for 1 hour 4p

Reading Electricity Meters
12/06/24

1) How many units of electricity

have been used?
2) If 1 unit costs 10p how much
has this electricity cost?

1 mon
th lat
e r…
 The 9 types of energy
12/06/24

Type 3 example sources

Heat
Kinetic (movement)
Nuclear
Sound
Light
Chemical
Electrical
Gravitational potential
Elastic potential
 The Laws of Physics
12/06/24

There are many laws of physics, but one of the most important
ones is:

Energy cannot be created or

destroyed, it can only be
converted from one form to
another
 Energy changes
12/06/24

To describe an energy change for a

light bulb we need to do 3 steps:

1) Write down the 3) Write down

starting energy: what energy types
2) Draw an arrow are given out:

Electricity Light + heat

What are the energy changes for the following…?

1) An electric fire
2) A rock about to drop
3) An arrow about to be fired
 Conservation of Energy
12/06/24

In any energy change there is ALWAYS some “waste” energy:

e.g. a light bulb:

Electricity Light + heat

In this example HEAT is wasted and it is transferred to

the surroundings, becoming very difficult to use.

Describe the following energy changes and state the “waste”

energy or energies:
1) A vacuum cleaner
2) A TV
3) A dynamo/generator
 Efficiency
12/06/24

Efficiency is a measure of how much USEFUL energy you

get out of an object from the energy you put INTO it.
For example, consider a TV:
(80J )
Light
Electrical
Energy (200J) Sound (40J)

Heat (
?)

Efficiency = Useful energy out

x100%
Energy in
 Some examples of efficiency…
12/06/24

1) 5000J of electrical energy are put into a

0.2 or
motor. The motor converts this into 100J of
20%
movement energy. How efficient is it?

2) A laptop can convert 400J of electrical energy 0.6 or

into 240J of light and sound. What is its 60%
efficiency? Where does the rest of the
energy go?

3) A steam engine is 50% efficient. If it delivers 40KJ

20,000J of movement energy how much
chemical energy was put into it?
 12/06/24
Energy Transfer (“Sankey”) diagrams
Consider a light bulb. Let’s say that the bulb runs on 100
watts (100 joules per second) and transfers 20 joules per
second into light and the rest into heat. Draw this as a
diagram:

“Input” energy “Output” energy

20 J/s
100 J/s
light energy
electrical
energy

80 J/s heat
energy (given to
the surroundings)
 Example questions
12/06/24

Consider a kettle: Consider a computer:

2000 J/s 150 J/s 20 J/s
electrical Wasted electrical wasted
energy heat energy heat

Heat to
water 10 J/s Useful
Sound light and
energy wasted
sound sound

1) Work out each energy value. 1) How much energy is converted

into useful energy?
2) What is the kettle’s
efficiency? 2) What is the computer’s
efficiency?
Reducing Energy Usage
12/06/24

How can we reduce

energy usage?
OCR 21 Century Science
st

Unit P3b Revision

Generating energy
 Generators (dynamos)
12/06/24

Electricity is convenient because it can be transmitted over

long distances and can be used in many ways. But how is it
generated? We need to use a “generator”:

Basically, a generator works by

spinning a magnet near a coil of
wire. That’s useful, but how do we
get this magnet to keep spinning?
 12/06/24
Using primary energy sources in power stations

1) A fuel is burned in the boiler

2) Water turns to steam and the steam drives a
turbine
3) The turbine turns a generator – if you want
more electricity you have to burn more fossil fuels
4) The output of the generator is connected to a
transformer
5) The steam is cooled down in a cooling tower and
reused
 Efficiency of Power Stations
12/06/24

Heat Heat Heat

15
J
50
J 5J
100J Boiler Turbine Generator
85J 35J 30J

Heat Kinetic Electrical

 Nuclear power stations
12/06/24

These work in a similar way to normal power stations:

The main difference is that the nuclear fuel is NOT

burnt. This means that they produce less pollution
but they do produce radioactive waste instead.
 Radioactive Waste - Ionisation
12/06/24

Radiation is dangerous because it “ionises” atoms – in other

words, it turns them into ions by “knocking off” electrons:

Alpha radiation is the most ionising (basically, because it’s the

biggest). Ionisation causes cells in living tissue to mutate,
usually causing cancer.
 Radioactive Contamination
12/06/24

Simply being “irradiated” by a radioactive material doesn’t

have to be dangerous – for example, we have background
radiation around us all the time. However, being
“contaminated” is far more dangerous. Consider the example
of Alexander Litvinenko who was poisoned with polonium-210:

Timeline of Events

Video of risks from polonium 210

 12/06/24
Other ways of generating electricity

Can we drive the turbine directly

without burning any fossil fuels? Here
are some examnples...
Wind Power
12/06/24
Wave Power
12/06/24
Hydroelectric Power
12/06/24
 The National Grid
12/06/24

Electricity reaches our homes from power stations through

the National Grid:

Step up Step down

Power station Homes
transformer transformer

If electricity companies transmitted electricity at 230 volts

through overhead power lines there would be too much energy
loss by the time electricity reaches our homes. To ensure this
doesn’t happen, electricity companies transmit electricity at
higher voltages instead.
 Which power station?
12/06/24

Type of Commiss- Running costs Decommiss- Life span

power station ioning costs (p per KWh) ioning costs (years)

Coal £650 million 4 £100 million 40-80

Oil £700 million 12 £100 million 40-80

Gas £800 million 6 £100 million 30-40

Nuclear £2 billion 3 £500 million 30-40

1) Which power station is the most expensive to build and

why?
2) Give one advantage of coal power stations
3) Why is nuclear fuel cheaper than oil?
4) Overall, which power station is the most expensive?
 12/06/24

Matching supply and demand…

Hydroelectric power
station might “kick in” here

“Baseline” power stations

Solar Panels and Thermal Towers
12/06/24

What are the

advantages and
disadvantages of solar
power?
 12/06/24
Using Solar Energy in remote places
 Geothermal Energy
12/06/24

Geothermal energy can be used in _______ areas such as

______. In a geothermal source cold water is pumped down
towards ____ _____. The water turns to steam and the
steam can be used to turn ______. In some areas the _____
rising at the surface can be captured and used directly.
Words – steam, Iceland, volcanic, turbines, hot rocks
 Non-renewable energy sources
12/06/24

Advantages Disadvantages
Cheap fuel costs
Costs a lot of
money to
Good for “basic decommission a
demand” nuclear plant

Reliable Coal, oil, gas and

Fuel will run
nuclear out
Short start-up time for
gas and oil
Pollution – CO2 leads to
Nuclear produces little global warming and SO2
pollution leads to acid rain
Renewable energy sources summary
12/06/24

Advantages Disadvantages
Zero fuel costs Unreliable
(except for
hydroelectric)
Don’t produce
pollution

Wind, tidal, Expensive

Hydroelectric to build
is good for a hydroelectric and solar
“sudden”
demand

Tidal barrages destroy the

Solar is good for habitats of wading birds
remote locations and hydroelectric schemes
(e.g. satellites) involve flooding farmland
 Electricity Supply in the UK
12/06/24

Notice that, due to all these advantages and disadvantages, we

use a variety of sources of energy in the UK: