Climate

Environment Human

Compiled by:
Agricultural
Production Monalisa Palavi
‘Amanaki Veituna
Salesi Kauvaka
 Contents of Presentation
1. Weather & Climate 3. Structure and composition of earth’s atmosphere
• What is weather? • What is the atmosphere?
• Factors of weather • Layers and composition of atmosphere
• What is climate? 4. Effects of climate on agricultural production in
• Variables of climate Tonga
• Classification of climate • Global challenges for agriculture & food security

2. Micro-climate and its components • Agriculture in the PICs

• What is microclimate? • Impacts of climate change on agriculture
• Macroclimate vs. microclimate
• Causes of microclimate
• Different types of microclimates

Weather and Climate Change 2

WEATHER & CLIMATE
“Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get.” (NOAA, 2018)

Weather and Climate Change 3

What is Weather?
• Is the day-to-day state of the atmosphere and its short-term variation in
minutes to weeks (Center, 2020).
• The combination of temperature, humidity, precipitation, cloudiness,
visibility and wind (Center, 2020).
• Weather is different in different parts of the world and changes over minutes,
hours, days and weeks (Research, 2021).
• Most weather happens in the troposphere, the most part of Earth’s
atmosphere that is closest to the ground(Research, 2021).

Weather and Climate Change 4

Weather
Figure 1: Weather forecast
for Nuku’alofa, source:
Tonga Meteorological
Service’s website:
[Link]
ather/[Link]

Weather and Climate Change 5

Important factors of Weather
Temperature Humidity
• There are many factors that
can change the atmosphere
in a certain area
Air Pressure Precipitation
• Together they determine
what the weather is like at a
given time and location.
Wind Speed &
Cloud cover
Direction

Figure 2: Factors that can change the atmosphere in an area

Weather and Climate Change 6

Weather is a short-term changes in the
atmosphere

Figure 3 : Weather forecast at 1:10PM, 8 August 2021, Hango, ‘Eua.

Weather and Climate Change 7
• All weather is caused by the Sun heating Earth.
• Sun’s energy heats the atmosphere unevenly, causes different air
pressures. Pressure is the weight of the air.
• Cold air weighs more than warm air because it is denser.
• Low and high air pressure cause different weather conditions.
Low-pressure air often brings rain, thunderstorms, and hurricanes.

Weather and Climate Change 8

• High-pressure air usually means clear skies and sunshine.
• The uneven heating of the atmosphere is the reason there is
different weather in most places on Earth during spring, summer,
autumn and winter.
• Scientist who predict, or forecast, the whether can’t usually make
forecasts beyond 10 days.
• Even weather reports cannot guarantee that the forecasts will be
accurate.
• While the weather varies from day-to-day at any particular
location, over the years, the same type of weather will reoccur
“average weather” found in any particular place is called climate.
Weather and Climate Change 9
 What is Climate?
• Climate is the type of weather such as 30 years or more.
• It describes what the weather is like (average) over a long period of time
(monthly, yearly, decades etc.) in a specific area. (NOAA, 2018).
• It is the long-term pattern of weather in an area, typically averaged over a
period of 30 years or more (Climate, 2014).
• It is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time
spanning from months to millions of years (Climate, 2014).
• Climate is the state of the components of the climate system, which includes
the ocean, land, and ice on Earth.
Weather and Climate Change 10
 Common Meteorological variables of
climate
A. Temperature
B. Humidity
C. Atmospheric pressure
D. Wind
E. precipitation

Weather and Climate Change 11

 Figure 4 : Annual Weather
Averages near Nuku’alofa,
weather reports collected
during 2005 - 2015

Weather and Climate Change 12

 Classification of Climate
Climates can be classified according to the average and typical ranges of different variables
most commonly temperature and precipitation. (Climate, 2014)
i) Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic
• Bergeron is the simplest classification that involving air masses.
• It is the most widely accepted form of air mass classification.
• While air mass identification was originally used in weather forecasting during 1950’s,
climatologist began to establish Spatial Synoptic (SS) climatologists based on Bergeron.
• Six categories within the SS scheme: Dry Polar, Dry Moderate, Dry Tropical, Moist Polar,
Moist Moderate and Moist Tropical
• This system categorizes the climate at a location based on the manual and somewhat
subjective determination of frequency with which it is dominated by certain types of weather.
Weather and Climate Change 13
ii) Thornthwaite system
• It is built on the physical interactions between local moisture and
temperature rather than only the precipitation and temperature data.
• It represents a more sophisticated and precise scheme of classification based
on local surface water balances.
• Thornthwaite devised a number of specific indices to quantify necessary
climatic components, including the moisture index (MI) and the potential
evaporation (PE) rate for a location.
• Thornthwaite also derived a Thermal Efficiency Index (T/ET) of the ratio of
temperature (T) to calculated evaporation (ET) value, and a Dryness Index
(DI) and Humidity Index (HI) to identify the times of the year with water
deficit or surplus.

Weather and Climate Change 14

iii) Köppen climate
• One of the most widely used climate
classification systems.
• German climatologist and amateur
botanist Wladimir Köppen (1846-1940)
divided the world’s climates into
categories based upon general temperature
profile related to latitude.
• It utilizes monthly temperature and
precipitation data in making calculations
upon which the classification scheme is Figure 5 : The major Köppen zones in the U.S; Source:
based. National Weather Service, url:
• Köppen identified five main climatic [Link]
groups: A (tropical), B (arid), C
(mesothermal or mid-latitude mild), D
(microthermal or mid-latitude cold), and E
(polar). Weather and Climate Change 15
A Tropical Climates
• Tropical moist climates extend north and south from the equator to about 15°
to 25° latitude.
• In these climates all months have average temperatures greater than 64°F
(18°C) and annual precipitation greater than 59".
B Dry Climates
• The most obvious climatic feature of this climate is that potential
evaporation and transpiration exceed precipitation.
• These climates extend from 20°-35° North and South of the equator and in
large continental regions of the mid-latitudes often surrounded by
mountains.
Weather and Climate Change 16
C Moist Subtropical Mid-Latitude Climates
• This climate generally has warm and humid summers with mild winters. Its extent
is from 30°50° of latitude mainly on the eastern and western borders of most
continents.
• During the winter, the main weather feature is the mid-latitude cyclone.
• Convective thunderstorms dominate summer months.
D Moist Continental Mid-Latitude Climates
• Moist continental mid-latitude climates have warm to cool summers and cold
winters. The location of these climates is poleward of the "C" climates. The
average temperature of the warmest month is greater than 50°F (10°C), while the
coldest month is less than -22°F (-30°C).
• Winters are severe with snowstorms, strong winds, and bitter cold from
Continental Polar or Arctic air masses.
Weather and Climate Change 17
E Polar Climates
• Polar climates have year-round cold temperatures with the warmest month
less than 50°F (10°C).
• Polar climates are found on the northern coastal areas of North America,
Europe, Asia, and on the land masses of Greenland and Antarctica
H Highlands
• Unique climates based on their elevation.
• Highland climates occur in mountainous terrain where rapid elevation
changes cause rapid climatic changes over short distances.

Weather and Climate Change 18

MICRO-CLIMATE
“Micro-climate is what you get where you at”

Weather and Climate Change 19

 What is Micro-climate?
• “Micro” means very small in size or tiny portion of something big.
• Micro-climate is any climatic condition in a relatively small area, within a
few meters or less above and below the Earth’s surface and within canopies
of vegetation (Britannica, 2020).
• It also known as local climate within an area.

Weather and Climate Change 20

• Is a local set of atmospheric conditions that differ from those in the
surrounding areas, often with a slight difference but sometimes with a
substantial one.
• Is the suite of climatic conditions measured in localized areas near the
earth's surface.

Figure 6: A hills that have

different local climates; Source:
[Link]
m/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/di
[Link]

Weather and Climate Change 21

Macro-climate vs Micro-climate
• Climate can be understood as the average state of the atmosphere and the
associated characteristics of the underlying land or water in a particular
region, usually at least a months or several years even decades (Jakovljević,
2008).
• It also the general climate of a large area, as of a continent or country.
• Microclimate is a small distinctly different climate within a larger area i.e.
fallowing pen of a sow.

Weather and Climate Change 22

 • Micro-climate can be used to
describe an atmospheric zone
indoors or an indoor climate, or
a portion of land under
mountains i.e. the condition of
the air in a certain closed space
(Jakovljević, 2008).

Figure 7: A vineyard climate; Source:

[Link]
content/uploads/2019/01/CLIMATE_vineyard.p
ng

Weather and Climate Change 23

 Examples of micro-climate
• The site of a building may have a many micro-climates caused by the
presence of hills valleys, slopes, streams and other buildings.
• A glass house for pot experiments and canopy trees within a forest creates a
microclimate which is cooler, wetter and has altered soil chemistry compare
to area outside the forest.
• A heavy urban area or near bodies of water that can cool the local
atmosphere.

Weather and Climate Change 24

• A wood land has cooler air temperature than of open area

Figure 8: Pine trees at Hango Campus. Source Photograph: ‘Amanaki Veituna

Weather and Climate Change 25

Environmental Variables Causes Micro-climate
Wind

Sun Slope

Micro-
climate

Thermal
Others
Mass

Weather and Climate Change 26

• Wind – Strong winds can decrease temperatures and damage trees.
• Slope – Cold air can be like an invisible flow of cold water, which is why a
valley floor is typically colder than higher up on a slope.
• Thermal Mass – Rocks and water absorb heat during the day and share it
with nearby plants during the night. Can lend warmth to a late-fall producing
fruit.
• Sun – Facing the sun increase temperature and become lower in shades
• Other weather and climate conditions

Weather and Climate Change 27

• Microclimates are caused by local differences in the amount of heat or
water received or trapped near the surface.
• May differ from its surroundings by receiving more energy, so it is a little
warmer than its surroundings.
• If it is shaded it may be cooler on average, because it does not get the direct
heating of the sun.
• Its humidity may differ, water may have accumulated there making things
damper or there may be less water so that it is drier.
• The wind speed may be different affecting the temperature and humidity
because wind tends to remove heat and water vapor.
• All these influences go into making the microclimate (Lemmons, 2021).

Weather and Climate Change 28

 Different types of Microclimates
• In truth, there is a distinctive microclimate for every type of environment on
the Earth’s surface (Microclimates, 2021) and they include the following:
a) Upland Regions

Higher ground tends to be windier and

temperature usually colder on average
than lower levels.

Figure 9: South east end of the island of

‘Eua. Source: [Link]
[Link]/images/[Link]
Weather and Climate Change 29
b) Coastal Regions
The coastal climate is influenced by both the land and sea between which the
coastal forms a boundary.

Figure 10: Beaches on ‘Eua island Source:

[Link]
ads/2019/11/OUTER-ISLAND-Eua-Lokupo-
Lookout-Small-Mandatory-Credit-Tonga-
[Link]

Weather and Climate Change 30

b) Forests
Tropical rainforests can be cooler and less windy than surrounding grassland
areas.

Figure 11: Inland Rain Forest of

‘Eua Island Source:
[Link]
content/uploads/to0336-
[Link]

Weather and Climate Change 31

c) Urban Regions
These are perhaps the most complex of all microclimates.
It contains several factors
i.e. human-generated heat, internal
combustion car engines that use fossil
fuels, many buildings

Figure 12: Urban area of Nuku’alofa.

Source:
[Link]
[Link]

Weather and Climate Change 32

EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
“Structure and composition”

Weather and Climate Change 33

What is the Atmosphere?

AIR & GASES &

CLOUD

Figure 13: View of the blue sky. Photographed by: Salesi Kauvaka
Weather and Climate Change 34
• Story tells that the one reason why Free Wesleyan Church color is BLUE
was inspired by the Blue Sky a color that we can see but fail to touch.
• UCAR 2021 states, the atmosphere is a mixture of gases surrounding the
planet.
• The atmosphere is the blanket of gases which surrounds Earth (Agency,
2021).
• Atmosphere is the thin layer of air that surrounds the earth.
• It is made up of various gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxides,
dust particles and water vapour.
• It has a series of layers, each with its own specific traits.

Weather and Climate Change 35

• The atmosphere is divided into five different layers, based on their
temperature (Society, 2019).
• Earth’s atmosphere stretches from the surface of the planet up to as far as
10,000 kilometers (6,214 miles) above.
• According to National Geographic Society 2019, not all scientists agree
where the actual upper boundary of the atmosphere is but they all agree
that the bulk of the atmosphere is located close to Earth’s surface up to
distance of 8-15km.

Weather and Climate Change 36

 0.9 0.1
Atmosphere Gases in 2019 • Figure 14 shows data
collected from National
21 Geographic Society in
2019.
• It stated that Oxygen gas
is second to Nitrogen
contained in the
atmosphere.
• Other gasses include
78 carbon dioxide, methane,
Nitrogen (N) Oxygen (O2) Argon Other gases water vapor, neon and
others.
Figure 14: What contained the Earth’s Atmosphere.

Weather and Climate Change 37

Layers of the 5. EXOSPHERE
atmosphere 4.
From ground level THERMOSPHERE
to space, layer
by layer the 3. MESOSPHERE
Atmosphere
is divided into 2.
STRATOSPHERE
5.

1.
Figure 15: Layers of the Earth’s TROPOSHERE
atmosphere

Weather and Climate Change 38

 i)
TROPHOSPHER
Eii)
iii)
iv)
v)

Weather and Climate Change 39

• Is the lowest layer of our atmosphere.
• From ground level it extends upward to about 10 kilometers (6.2
miles or about 33,000 feet) above sea level (Agency, 2021).
• It is thickest at the equator and much thinner at the North and
South Poles.
• Majority of the mass of entire atmosphere is between 75% – 80%.

Weather and Climate Change 40

• Most of the water vapor, along with dust and ash particles are
found here.
• It is why most Earth’s clouds are located in this layer.
• Temperatures decrease with altitude.

Weather and Climate Change 41

 i) TROPHOSPHERE
ii)
STRATOSPHERE
iii)
iv)
v)

Weather and Climate Change 42

• Next layer up from Earth’s surface.
• Reaches from the top of troposphere called tropopause to an
altitude of approximately 50km (30 miles) (Agency, 2021).
• Temperature increase with altitude.
• A high concentration of ozone – a molecule composed of three
atoms of oxygen make up the ozone layer (Agency, 2021).

Weather and Climate Change 43

• Ozone molecules in this layer absorb high-energy ultraviolet
(UV) light from the Sun converting energy into heat.
• The air is very dry, and it is about a thousand times thinner here
than it is at sea level.
• This is where jet aircraft and weather balloons fly.
(Society, 2019)

Weather and Climate Change 44

 i) TROPHOSPHERE
ii) STRATOSPHERE
iii)
MESOSPHERE
iv)
v)

Weather and Climate Change 45

• Top of the stratosphere is called stratopause.
• Next above Stratosphere is the Mesosphere.
• It extends upward to a height of about 85 km (53 miles) above our
planet.
• Most meteors burn up in the mesosphere.
• Temperatures decreases as you rise up through the mesosphere.

Weather and Climate Change 46

• The coldest temperatures in Earth’s atmosphere about 90 0C (-
1300F) are found neat the top of this layer.
• Air pressure drop with altitude.
• The atmosphere is thin and still thick enough so that meteors will
burn up as they pass through creating what we see as “shooting
stars”.
• Upper boundary of Mesosphere is called Mesopause.
(Society, 2019)

Weather and Climate Change 47

 i) TROPHOSPHERE

ii) STRATOSPHERE

iii) MESOSPHERE

iv)
THERMOSPHERE

v)

Weather and Climate Change 48

• It is located above the Mesopause and reaches out to around 600
km (372 miles).
• Temperature is increase with altitude.
• Solar radiation makes the upper regions of the thermosphere very
hot, reaching temperatures as high as 2,000 0C (3,6000F).
(Society, 2019)

Weather and Climate Change 49

• The air is thin and freezing.
• Many satellites actually orbit Earth within this layer.
• Variation in the amount of energy coming from the Sun exert a
powerful influence on both the height of the top of this layer and
the temperature within it.
• It is found anywhere between 500 and 1,000 km (311-621 miles)
above the ground.
(Society, 2019)

Weather and Climate Change 50

• Temperatures in the upper thermosphere can range from about
5000C (9320F) to 2,0000C (3,6320F) or higher.
• The Aurora, the Northern Lights and Southern Lights occur in this
layer.
(Society, 2019)

Weather and Climate Change 51

 Figure 16: Aurora Lights on the Thermosphere. Source:
[Link]
ra_Borealis_and_Australis_Poster.jpg

Weather and Climate Change 52

 i) TROPHOSPHERE

ii) STRATOSPHERE

iii) MESOSPHERE

iv) THERMOSPHERE

v) EXOSPHERE

Weather and Climate Change 53

• The uppermost layer of our atmosphere and are considered the actual “final
frontier”.
• The air is very, very, very thin making this layer even more space-like than
the thermosphere.
• There is actually no clear-cut upper boundary where the exosphere is bound
to however latter value is about halfway to the Moon.
(UCAR, 2021)

Weather and Climate Change 54

• This is where the atmosphere is merges into outer space.
• Composed of very widely dispersed particles of hydrogen and helium.
• The pull of Earth’s gravity is so small here that molecules of gas escape into
outer space.
(Society, 2019)

Weather and Climate Change 55

 Figure 17: Earth’s Atmosphere. Source:
[Link]
earth-education-poster-vector-id1097977724?
k=20&m=1097977724&s=612x612&w=0&h=fAoKfo
duN_MCHBIZ5RWgAW90d6gNdqz3cEIuIKaSAyY=

Weather and Climate Change 56

CLIMATE CHANGE
vs.
AGRICULTURAL
PRODUCTION
“Kingdom of Tonga”

Weather and Climate Change 57

 Figure 18: Impacts and adaptations
to Climate change Lifuka, Ha’apai.
Source:
[Link]
roxy/yTkQh_5Xdu0nJDbukxwzAy
SBeLZ1SJEHxUhxZnuTRwagsFtV
omGS3baT6Gu_jFJQOFZ0IGZn7
QHVa46psbkZASSI6uKHUy6Odm
QYKbiPzooaaJUA9JwN5mM

Weather and Climate Change 58

 Global Challenges for Agriculture & Food
Security Global Trade
Uncertainty

• Fakava, 2012 point out these global

Impact
challenges for agriculture and food Increase
Population
Climate
Change
security.
• Climate Change is one of them. Global
Challenges for
Agriculture &
Food Security
Increase Food Increase Pests
Demand and Diseases

Figure 19: Global Challenges for Agriculture

and Food Security Decrease Decrease
Resources Biodiversity

Weather and Climate Change 59

• Pacific Islands are the most vulnerable to climate change due to
its geographical remoteness and size.
• Scientists have projected that by 2100 Pacific Island Countries
(PICs) would experience:
Sea-level rise by about 0.39 meters
Surface air-temperature to increase by 2.3 0C
Rainfall could either rise of fall with predicted impacts of 8.36% to
20.2%
El Nino conditions possibly more frequently
Tropical cyclones becoming more intense
Saline intrusion into freshwater lenses
Increased flooding
(Fakava, 2012)
Weather and Climate Change 60
 Agriculture in the Pacific Islands

Agriculture is vital and central to PIC’s economy with

contribution of:
• Major food source
• Raw materials supply for manufacturing
• Source of income
• Contribution to GDP
• Foreign Exchange
• Employment
Weather and Climate Change 61
 Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture
• IFPRI [Link] (2009) stated the impact of climate change on agriculture and
human well-being include: i) the biological effects on crop yields, ii)
resulting impacts on outcomes including prices, production, and
consumption, iii) the impacts on per capita calorie consumption and
child malnutrition.
• The biophysical effects of climate change on agriculture include changes in
production and prices, which play out through the economic system as
farmers and other market participants altering crop mix, input use,
production, food demand, food consumption and trade.

Weather and Climate Change 62

Fakava, 2012 emphasized the followings:
• Agriculture production affected by increasing temperatures, changing
rainfall patterns, and more frequent and intense extreme weather events.
• It will have direct effects on crop growth and their need for water as well as
soil fertility, water supply for irrigation, and prevalence of pests and
diseases.
• In terms of livestock, climate change also will affect the quality and amount
of feed supply and water.

Weather and Climate Change 63

Climate hazards will affect agriculture through:
• Heat stress on plants
• Changes in soil moisture and temperature
• Loss of soil fertility through erosion of top soil
• Less water available for crop production
• Changes in height of water table
• Salinization of freshwater aquifer
• Loss of land through sea level rise
The consequences of such impacts are likely to be particularly severe in the
atoll islands including the Ha’apai group.

Weather and Climate Change 64

Tropical Cyclones and Storms
• Cyclones are a significant cause of lost agricultural production.
Severe Drought
• Severe drought presents problem for agriculture everywhere in the PICs
including Hango.
• Pacific agriculture more rain fed and lack of irrigation experienced by Tonga
in the past 10 years.
Wind and water causing soil erosion
• Poor road construction induce soil erosion after heavy rain with top soil
being drained off to coastal area.

Weather and Climate Change 65

Cyclone or flood damages
• Increased risk of flooding in river catchments also threatens food production.
Pest and disease outbreaks
• Changes in rainfall patterns, temperature and wind direction could result in
the establishment and emergence of new pests and diseases threatening
agriculture.
• Samoa’s experience with outbreak of Taro Leaf Blight in 1993, 95%
reduction in taro production.
• Taken 16 years to breeding for resistant varieties and resume exports.

Weather and Climate Change 66

 Summary
• Weather is the local climate of a particular place while climate is
a long term weather and can be weekly, monthly, yearly even
decades.
• Micro-climate is any climatic condition in a small area.
• Atmosphere is divided into 5 layers, troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere.
• Climate impact the agriculture in Tonga including pests and
diseases outbreak, increasing temperatures, changing rainfall
patterns, frequent weather events affects agricultural production
throughout the PICs.
67
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[Link]
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Meteorogy: [Link]
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[Link]
• Fakava, V. T. (2012). Climate Change Impact on Agriculture and Food Security. Regional Training
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68
• Lemmons, R. (2021, 6 26). What causes microclimates-vegetation. Retrieved from Climate Policy Watcher:
[Link]
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[Link]
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MALO

Weather and Climate Change 70