BIOCHEMISTRY OF

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Syarifah Dewi

Dept. Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Faculty of Medicine, University of Indonesia
SALIVARY FLUID
 Approximately 99% water
 Electrolytes: sodium, potassium, calcium,
chloride, magnesium, bicarbonate,
phosphate
 Proteins: enzymes, immunoglobulins and
other antimicrobial factors, mucosal
glycoproteins (mucin)
 glucose and nitrogenous products, such as
urea and ammonia
 Stimulated: 1-3 ml/min, unstimulated: 0.25-
0.35 ml/min
DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATE
 The largest sources of dietary calories
 Digestive enzyme of carbohydrate

1. Salivary and pancreatic α-Amylase  in

mouth and duodenum
2. Disaccharidases  intestinal brush border
membrane
Α-AMYLASE
 Secreted from salivary and pancreas gland
 It is an endoglucosidase  hydrolizes
internal α-1,4-bonds between glucosyl
residues
 Inactivated by the acidity of the stomach
contents
Α-AMYLASE
 Salivary α-amylase  converts starch to
smaller polysaccharides (α-dextrins)
 Pancreatic α-amylase  converts α-dextrins
to disaccharides (maltose), trisaccharides
(maltotriose) and oligosaccharides (limit
dextrin)
 Pankreatic juice contains bicarbonate 
neutralize gastric acid
Action of salivary and pancreatic α-amylase
DISACCHARIDASES
 Attached to membrane in the brush border
(microvilli)
 Disaccharidases based on glycosidase activities
- glucoamylase: exoglucosidase, α-1,4-bonds
- the sucrase-isomaltase complex: hydrolayze
sucrose (α-1,2-bond), α-1,6-bonds in dextrin
- trehalase: hydrolyze trehalose (α-1,1-bond)
- β-glycosidase complex (lactase-
glucosylceramidase): hydrolyze lactose (β-1,4-
bond), glycolipids
Polysaccharides Disaccharides
 ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATE
 Na+-dependent transporters (secondary active transport)
 Facilitative glucose transporters (depend on its
concentration gradient): GLUT
LACTOSE INTOLERANCE
 Refers to a condition of pain, nausea and
flatulence after the ingestion of food
containing lactose (dairy product)
 Deficiency of lactase (primary lactase
deficiency)
 Intestinal injury (secondary lactase
deficiency)
 DIETARY FIBER
 It consist of plant materials that are
polysaccharide derrivatives, cannot be digested
by human enzymes in intestinal tract
 Soluble fiber: pectins, mucilages, gums
 Insoluble fiber: cellulose, hemicellulose, lignins
 It is metabolized by bacteria in colon, form gas
(H2, CO2, methane), shortchain fatty acids
(acetic, propionic, butyric acid), lactate
 Incomplete products of digestion in the
intestines increase water retention 
defecation
DIGESTION OF LIPID
 Limited digestion in mouth and
stomach
 In the intestine, the fats are emulsified
by bile salts  increases the surface
area to digest
 Enzyme: pancreatic lipase
 Triacylglycerol  free fatty acids and
2-monoacylglycerol
DIGESTION OF LIPID
 Phospholipids are hydrolyzed by phospholipase A2
 Cholesterol esters are hydrolyzed by cholesterol
esterase
ABSORPTION OF LIPID
 Fatty acids & 2-monoacylglycerols are packaged
into micelles  emulsified by bile salts
 The micelles interact with the enterocyte
membrane  diffusion into the cell
 The bile salts  remain in the intestinal lumen 
reabsorbed and sent back to the liver
(enterohepatic circulation)
 In intestinal epithelial cells  resynthesize TG 
package with protein, phospholipids and
cholesterol esters into a soluble lipoprotein
particle (chylomicron)
DIGESTION OF PROTEIN
 Begins in the stomach and completed in the
intestine
 These eznymes are secreted in inactive forms
(zymogen)
 In the stomach: pepsinogen is secreted by chief
cells, acctivated by HCl and pepsin
(autocatalytic)
 Pepsin: endopeptidase, work at low pH (1-2), it
tends to cleave peptide bonds in which the
carboxyl group in aromatic or acidic amino acid
DIGESTION OF PROTEIN
 In the intestine: digestion by pancreatic
proteases and enzymes from intestinal cells
 Pancreatic proteases  trypsinogen
(trypsin), chymotripsinogen (chymotripsin),
proelastase (elastase), procarboxypeptidase
(carboxypeptidase)
 Intestinal cells  aminopeptidase
(exopeptidase)
ABSORPTION OF AMINO ACID
 Na+-dependent transport protein (mucosal
membrane)
 Facilitated transporters (serosal membrane)
DIETARY NUCLEIC ACIDS
 Pancreas  ribonucleases and
deoxyribonucleases,
phosphodiesterases
 Intestinal cells  nucleotidase,
nucleosidase
 Dietary purin  converted to uric
acids in intestinal cells  urine
 REGULATION OF ENZYMES
SECRETION
 Secretion of enzymes is regulated and
coordinated with electrolytes
 Regulation of secretion is through
secretagogues that interact with receptors
on the surface of exocrine cells
Organ Secretion Secretagogue
Salivary gland NaCl, amylase Acetylcholine
Stomach HCl, pepsinogen Acetylcholine, histamin, gastrin
Pancreas-acini NaCl, digestive enzymes Acetylcholine, cholecystokinin, secretin
Pancreas-duct NaHCO3, NaCl Secretin
Small intestine NaCl Acetylcholine, serotonin, vasoactive
intestinal peptide (VIP), guanylin
INTESTINAL PUTREFACTION &
FERMENTATION
 Food residues  large intestine
 Bacterial activity  produce various gases:
CO2, methane, hydrogen nitrogen, H2S
 Intestinal bacteria  synthesis of certain
vitamin: vit K, possibly members of B
complex
GASTRIC ACID (HCL)
 Secreted by parietal cells, required ATP
 Enzyme: carbonic anhydrase
 CO2 + H2O  HCO3- + H+
 Functions: activate pepsinogen  pepsin,
denature protein, killing microorganisms
 Histamin (ECL cell)  potent stimulator of
HCl secretion  H2 receptor
THE BILE
 Produced by the liver, storage in the gallbaldder
 Secrete to duodenum  initiated by
cholecystokinin
 Composition: water, bile acids, mucin, pigments,
cholesterol, fatty acids, inorganic salts
 Functions: emulsification, neutralization of acid,
excretion (drugs, toxin, bile pigment), solubilize
cholesterol
BILE ACIDS
 Cholic acid, chenodeoxycholic acid 
synthesized in the liver from cholesterol
 Enter the bile as glycine or taurine conjugates:
glyco/taurocholic acid, glyco/tauro
chenodeoxycholic acid
 Bile contains significant quantities of alkali
cations (Na+, K+)  form bile salt
 In the intestine, deconjugation and 7α-
dehydroxylation (bacterial activity) 
deoxycholic and lithocholic acid
 Ileum  95% bile acid will be reabsorbed
(enterohepatic circulation)
 Equilibrium bile salt-phospholipid-cholesterol
phase diagram
 Cholesterol stone (85%): crystalline
cholesterol monohydrate predominantly
 Pigment stone: bilirubin calcium salt
predominantly
- Black pigment: cirrhosis, hemolytic anemia
- Brown pigment: infection
PORPHYRIN METABOLISM
 Porphyrin: 4 pyrrole rings are joined by
methenyl bridge (-CH-)
 Heme  a porphyrin ring coordinated with
an atom of iron (Fe)
 Most heme is complexed with protein
hemoglobin, mioglobin, cytochrome
(including CYP450)
 Pyrrole ring

Heme structure
Heme Synthesis
Degradation of Heme
 XENOBIOTIC METABOLISM
 Xenobiotic exposure , such drugs, food additives,
pollutan
 Biotrasformation reaction
 Main organ: Liver
 2 phases: phase 1 (hydroxilation) and phase 2
(conjugation)
 Enzyme:monooxygenase/CYP450
 Aim: increases water solubility  easy to
excretion in urine
Metabolisme xenobiotik

CYP450
THANK YOU