PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis
 Photon-light; synthesis- to prepare

It is the process of formation of organic food (glucose) by chlorophyll containing cells utilizing
carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight. Oxygen is releases as byproduct.
 General equation of photosynthesis

The function of water is to provide hydrogen for the synthesis of organic compounds, all
liberated oxygen during photosynthesis comes from water.
 Correct biochemical reaction for photosynthesis
is
Note- It is an anabolic,
endergonic, oxidation-
reduction process
 Photosynthesis
Importance of Photosynthesis
 It is very important process in which energy is formed.

Oxygen is evolved as by-product of photosynthesis which is essential

for respiration.
 Sugars produced during photosynthesis either stored in the form
of
carbohydrates or used in the biosynthesis of other organic compounds.
 CO2 is consumed during photosynthesis which help to reduce global warming.

 The food prepared during photosynthesis is consumed by another organisms.

 Fuels in the form of wood, coal petroleum and natural gas are also indirect product of
photosynthesis
 Photosynthesis
Site of photosynthesis  In case of prokaryotes it takes place in small
structure called Chromatophore.
Chloroplast- Double membrane bound cell
organelles found in green parts of plants.  In eukaryotes, site of photosynthesis is Chloroplast

 Number of chloroplasts differ in different cells.

 Each chloroplast is more or less oval in shape.

Chloroplast consist gel like

of substances called ground
stroma of fluid filed sacs or
series called thylakoid
matrix and
or lamella. a
 Thylakoids are piled up to form granum.
Grana are connected by intergranal lamella
(stroma lamella).
Thylakoid membranes contain photosynthetic
pigments that help in trapping light energy and
convert them into chemical energy.

 Quantasomes are photosynthetic units which

surrounds each thylakoids and consist of 230
chlorophyll molecules (160 Chlorophyll-a & 70
chlorophyll-b).

 Chloroplasts also bears carotenoids and

Xanthophyll pigments in higher plants.

The process of photosynthesis occurs in two

different steps: light reaction and dark reaction.
The light reaction takes place in grana and dark
reaction occurs in stroma portion of chloroplast.
 Photosynthesis
Photosynthetic pigments
Pigments involve in photosynthesis, located in thylakoids of chloroplast and take
part in the absorption of light energy from sun.
Three types of photosynthetic pigments: chlorophyll, carotenoids and
phycobilins.
Chlorophyll and carotenoids are insoluble in water and can be extracted only
with organic solvents.
 Phycobilins are soluble in water.

 Carotenoid includes carotene and xanthophyll.

 Photosynthesis
Photosynthetic pigments
1. Chlorophylls:
 They are green photosynthetic pigment made up of magnesium & porphyrin molecule

It is of different types such as chlorophyll-a, chl-b, chl-c, chl-d, chl-e and bacterial
chlorophyll, bacterioviridin..
 Out of these only chl-a and chl-b are found in chloroplast of higher plants.
 Molecular formulae Chlorophyll-a: C55H72O5N4Mg Chlorophyll-b: C55H70O6N4Mg

Chlorophyll- a is primary photosynthetic pigments which is found in all

photosynthetic plants.
Chlorophyll-b is accessory pigments which absorb the light energy of
different wavelength and handover to chl-a.
 PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS
• magnesium porphyrin
compound.

• porphyrin ring comprises four

pyrrol ring.

• Pyrrol ring consist of 4 carbon

and one nitrogen atom, the
pyrrol rings are joined together
by bridges.

• Long carbon chain atoms

called phytol tail is attached
to the fourth pyrrol ring of
porphyrin ring.

• Phytol tail is made up of

alcohol having 20 carbons.
 Pigments Distribution
Chlorophyll Chlorophyll-a All photosynthetic
plants except bacteria

Chlorophyll-b Higher plants & green

algae
Chlorophyll-c Diatoms,
dinoflagellates &
brown algae
Chlorophyll-d In some red alage
Chlorophyll-e In Tribonema &
Zoospore of Vaucheria

Bacteriochlorophyll-a Purple and green

bacteria
 Pigments Distribution
Bacteriochlorophyll-b In a strain of purple
bacterium
Rhodopseudomonas
Bacteriochlorophyll-c, d & e Green bacteria
(Chlorobium chlorophyll &
Bacterioviridin)
Carotenoids Carotenes Mostly in higher plants
and green algae
Xanthophyll Mostly in higher plants
and green algae

Phycobilins Phycoerythrin In blue-green algae &

red algae
Phycocyanin In blue-green algae &
red algae
 Photosynthesis
Photosynthetic pigments
2. Carotenoids: Carotenes

 They are yellow, orange or red pigments associated with chlorophyll.

 Two types: Carotenes (C40H56) and xanthophylls (C40H56O2).
xanthophylls
 Carotenes - red orange coloured pigments , β –carotene is the common with orange colour.

 Xanthophyll is similar to carotene with yellow colour

 They are accessory pigments as they absorb and transfer energy (light) to chlorophyll-a.

3. Phycobillins:
 They are phycoerythrin (red) and phycocyanin (blue) pigments.

 Found in red algae and blue green algae respectively.

PHOTOSYSTEMS or PIGMENT SYSTEMS

 In green plants, photosynthetic units occur

in the form of two distinct group called
photosystems or pigment systems

 photosystem involved in photosynthesis are:

Photosystem I (PS I) and Photosystem II (PS II).

 Each photosystem comprises two components:

reaction center and Harvesting moleclues
(Antenna & core molecule)
 Photosynthesis
PHOTOSYSTEMS or PIGMENT SYSTEMS
PHOTOSYSTEM I
 It is present on both grana and stroma thylakoid.

 It consist of photocenter(reaction center), light harvesting complex and some electron carrier.

 Photocenter has a dimer of special chlorophyll a molecules called P700.

Light harvesting complex have other chlorophyll a molecules, followed by chlorophyll b and
carotenoids.
 It takes part in both cyclic and non cyclic photophosphorylation.
 Photosynthesis
PHOTOSYSTEMS or PIGMENT SYSTEMS
PHOTOSYSTEM II

 It is present only on grana thylakoid.

It consist of photocenter(reaction center), light harvesting complex, oxygen evolving complex
and some electron carrier.

 Photocenter has a dimer of special chlorophyll a molecules called P680.

 Light harvesting complex have other chlorophyll a molecules, chlorophyll b and carotenoids.

 It takes part in only non cyclic photophosphorylation in conjugation with PS I.

 Photolysis of water takes place.

 Photosynthesis
Mechanism of photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is an oxidation reduction process in which water is oxidized to
release oxygen and carbon dioxide is reduced to form carbohydrates.
 The whole process is completed into two main phase:

A. Light reaction
B. Dark reaction
 Mechanism of photosynthesis
A. Light reaction/ Primary photochemical reaction/ Hill reaction
Light reaction is the first step of photosynthesis occurring in grana of chloroplast
and needs the utilization of light energy.
 This process was proposed by Robin Hill (1937), so this reaction is also called Hill
reaction .
In this process assimilatory power (NADPH and ATP) are formed, which are utilized
in the dark phase of photosynthesis.

NADP= Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate

ATP= Adenosine Triphosphate

 Oxygen: by-product (from water- Van Neil)
 Faster than dark reaction
 Mechanism of photosynthesis
Steps of light reaction…
a. Absorption of light energy by photosynthetic pigments
The photosynthetic pigments except chlorophyll-a are called
accessory pigments.
 These accessory pigments absorb light energy and transfers to chlorophyll-a
(reaction center).
Chl-a is the king photosynthetic pigment which can alone take part
in photosynthesis.
 Mechanism of photosynthesis
Steps of light reaction…
b. Photoexcitation of chlorophyll a
As soon as light energy is absorbed by chl-a, it becomes excited having more
energy.
 Chl-a is oxidized and releases electrons
Sunlight
Chl-a (Chl-a) + + e-
 it expels one electron to the higher energy level called excited singlet state.

 Chl-a which losses electron is called ionized chlorophyll-a.

c. Photolysis of water

 A part of energy of energy rich expelled electron is used to break down of water
and liberation of O2 in presence of light, the process is called Photolysis of water.
 Takes place in PS II
light
4H2O Mn
4H + +4OH‫־‬
++

4OH‫־‬ Cl -

2H22H2O
O+O2+4e‫־‬ 4H ++O2+4e‫־‬
 OH- ions unite to form water molecules again and released O2 and
electrons
 The process is also called Photo-oxidation of water .
 Note- The electron is accepted by PS II and the hydrogen ions are accepted by NADP (Nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide posphate) to form NADPH2 (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide hydrogen posphate).
 Mechanism of photosynthesis
Steps of light reaction…
D. Photophosphorylation
The process of formation of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate at the time
of photosynthesis is called photophosphorylation.
ATPas
ADP + iP e
Light
ATP
The electron released during photoexcitation of Chl-a move through
two different pathways.
 Cyclic photophosphorylation

 Non- cyclic photophosphorylation

 Mechanism of photosynthesis
Steps of light reaction…
 Cyclic photophosphorylation :
Electron released by P700 of PS-I travel
through a number of electron carrier and
return back to same reaction center.

 Only PS-I is involved in this process

ATP is produced but NADPH2 and O2 are

not produced.
There is the formation of 2 molecule of ATP
at the end.
A. Cyclic Photophosphorylation

 The electrons released by P700 of PS I in

the presence of light are taken up by the
primary acceptor, Ferrodoxin (Fd) and then
passed in to PQ, cytochrome complex, PC
and finally back to P700 so, it is called
Cyclic photophosphorylation.

 In this process, energy is produced without

photolysis of water.

Note: ATP is produced during transfer of

electron from Ferrodoxin to plastoquinone
and in cytochrome complex.
Cyclic Photophosphorylation

+iP

+ iP
 Mechanism of photosynthesis
Steps of light reaction…
 Non-Cyclic photophosphorylation
:
Electron released by reaction center P680
of PS-II travel through a number of electron
carrier but does not return back to same
reaction center.
Both photosystem PS-I and PS-II are
involved in this process
 Photolysis of water.

 Water molecule is utilized as source of

electron
 It starts from PS II, electron donated by P680 of PS II pass through primary
acceptor, Plastoquinone (PQ), cytochrome complex, and Plastocyanin (PC) and
finally accepted by P700 of PS I.

 Formation of ATP occurs between cytochrome complex.

 P700 also expels electron to primary acceptor and the electron is accepted by NADP.

 The hydrogen ion produced during photolysis of water are accepted by NADP to
from NADPH2.

 Note: The net result of non-cyclic phosphorylation is the formation of two

NADPH2, one ATP molecule
Primary
 Mechanism of photosynthesis
Differences in between cyclic and non cyclic photophosphorylation
Cyclic Photophosphorylation Non Cyclic Photophosphorylation
 Electrons return back to the same  Electrons released from reaction center does
center not return to the same center

 Only one photosystem (PS-I) is involved  Both photosystem are involved (PS-I and PS-II)

 Evolution of oxygen and photolysis of  Evolution of oxygen and photolysis of water

water do not occur occur
 It synthesize only ATP  It synthesize both ATP and NADPH2
 First electron donor is P700  First electron donor is water.
 Last electron acceptor is P700 itself  Last electron acceptor is NADP+
• Common in all plants and bacteria • Common in all plants and absent in bacteria
 Mechanism of photosynthesis
Dark Reaction or Blackman’s reaction:
 It is final phase of photosynthesis and is light independent.
 Takes place in stroma portion of chloroplast.

 Assimilatory power (ATP and NADPH2) produced in light reaction are utilized in
dark reaction to reduce carbon dioxide into glucose.
 All reactions in dark phase are controlled by enzymes
 It can takes place in three different ways

 Calvin cycle or C3 cycle

 Hatch slack pathway or C4 cycle.

 CAM cycle
 Mechanism of photosynthesis
Calvin cycle or C3 cycle or Calvin-Benson cycle
 This method was first discovered by Melvin Calvin on green algae Chlorella.

 CO2 acceptor is 5-C compound, i.e. RUBP (Ribulose 1,5 bisphosphate).

First stable compound formed is 3-C compound i.e. 3-phosphoglyceric acid, therefore
it is called C3 cycle.

 Plants showing C3 cycle are called C3 plants

 Completed in three steps

1. Carboxylation
2. Glycolytic reversal
 Mechanism of photosynthesis
1. Carboxylation
RUBP already present in the cell accepts the CO2 from atmosphere to produce
2 molecules of 3-phosphoglyceric acid (3-PGA)
This reaction is catalyzed by RuBisCo (Ribulose Bisphosphate
carboxylase- oxygenase)
 3-phosphoglyceric acid is the first stable product of Calvin cycle.
RuBisCo
RUBP + CO2 3 Phosphoglyceric acid.
 Mechanism of photosynthesis
2. Glycolytic reversal
 conversion of 3PGA to glucose.

Reverse process of formation of 3 PGA from glucose in glycolysis of respiration.

(so called glycolytic reversal)
 Takes place in various steps.
Phosphoglyceric acid kinase
 3 PGA+ ATP 1,3 biphosphoglyceric acid + ADP

Triose phosphate
 . 1,3 biphosphoglyceric acid dehydrogenase 3 Phosphoglyceraldehyde
+ NADPH2
+NADP+ + H3PO4
 Mechanism of photosynthesis
2. Glycolytic reversal
Phosphotriose isomerase
 3 Phosphoglyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate
Aldolase
 3 Phosphoglyceraldehyde + Dihydroxyacetone phosphate Fructose 1,6-
biphosphate
 Fructose 1,6- biphosphate + H2O Phosphatase Fructose 6- phosphate +
H3PO4 Isomerase
 Fructose 6-phosphate Glucose 6-
phosphate
Phosphatase
 Glucose 6- phosphate + H2O Starch
Glucose
As glucose is the 6 carbon compound six turns of Calvin cycle are required to
synthesize one molecule of glucose.
Dark reaction: Calvin-Benson cycle OR C3 cycle
3. Regeneration of RuBP: Formation of RuBP
 It takes place in various steps.
a. Fructose-6 phosphate + 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde
transketolase
Erythrose-4 phosphate + Xylulose-5 phosphate.

b. Erythrose-4 phosphate + Dihydroxyacetone phosphate

Aldolase
Sedoheptulose-1,7 diphosphate.

c. Sedoheptulose-1,7 diphosphate Sedoheptulose-7 phosphate.

ribose -5 phosphate.

Xylulose -5 phosphate. RuBP

 Sedoheptulose-7 phosphate gives 2 carbon to 3
phosphoglyceraldehyde

 3 phosphoglyceraldehyde forms xylulose-5-

phosphate

 Remaining 5 carbon of Sedoheptulose-7 phosphate forms ribose

5-phosphate

 Xylulose-5-phosphate are converted into ribulose-5-phosphate by

enzyme epimerase

 ribose 5-phosphate is converted into ribulose-5-phosphate by

enzyme isomerase

 Finally, ribulose-5-phosphate is converted into ribulose 1,5-

 If step 3 is difficult – you can write in this way also

3. Regeneration of RUBP
 Some of the molecules of 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde instead of forming glucose,
undergo several intermediate reactions and regenerate RUBP to continue the
cycle.
 The intermediate metabolites during regenerations are Dihydrooxyacetone
phosphate, Erythrose 4-phosphate, Sedoheptulose 1,7- biphosphate,
Sedoheptulose 7-phosphate, Xylulose 5-phosphate, Ribulose 5- phosphate and
Ribulose 1,5- phosphate.
 The net reaction of C3 cycle
is:
6 RUBP +C6H12O6+12NADP++ 18ADP+18ip+6H2O
6 RUBP + 6CO2+12NADPH2 + 18 ATP
6CO2+12NADPH+ + 12 H+ + 18 ATP C6H12O6+12NADP++ 18ADP+18ip+6H2O
Mechanism of photosynthesis
Mechanism of photosynthesis
 Mechanism of photosynthesis
 Independent of light.
 Utilization of ATP and NADPH2
 Reduction of CO2 and Formation of Glucose.
 Usage of less ATP than C4 cycle.
 Regeneration of RuBP.
 Majority of plants prefer C3 cycle.
 Takes place under normal condition.
Disadvantage
They have to close stomata at high temperature condition to avoid dehydration
(slow down the photosynthesis)
 Rubisco also reacts with O2 and shows photorespiration
 Mechanism of photosynthesis
Hatch and Slack pathway or C4 cycle
 It is the alternate pathway of C3 cycle to fix CO2.

First stable compound is 4- carbon compound called OAA (oxaloacetic

acid), so this cycle is also called C4 cycle.

 First CO2 acceptor- PEP (Phosphoenol pyruvic acid)

 Detail mechanism of this cycle was given by Hatch and Slack in 1967.

 Plants showing C4 cycle are called C4 plants.

They are separated from C3 plants in having Kranz anatomy in

 Mechanism of photosynthesis
Krantz Anatomy
The word Kranz means
“wreath” or “ring”.
Kranz anatomy is a
specialized structure in
C4 Plants where the
mesophyll cells are clustered
around the bundle-sheath
cells in a ring-like fashion.
 Mechanism of photosynthesis
 Chloroplast is Dimorphic.

 Chloroplasts of mesophyll cells- contain grana & stroma: light reaction and
CO2 fixation
 Chloroplasts of bundle sheath- lack grana: refixation of CO2 and its
reduction (C3 cycle)
 Examples of C4 plants: Tropical plants of hot climate; sugarcane, maize,
Euphorbia, Amaranthus, Chenopodium, Sorghum, etc.
C4 plants are able to more efficiently fix carbon in drought, high temperatures,
and limitations of nitrogen.
 Mechanism of photosynthesis
Steps of C4 cycle
i. Fixation of CO2 by PEP (Phosphoenol pyruvic acid) to form oxaloacetic acid
(OAA) in mesophyll cell. (PEP carboxylase is more efficient for CO2 fixation than
Rubisco.) PEP carboxylase
PEP+ CO2+H2O
Oxaloacetic acid

ii. Oxaloacetic acid is reduce to malicMalic

acid.dehydrogenase
Oxaloacetic acid+ NADPH2 Malic acid+ NADP
+
iii. Malic acid get entered into bundle sheath and decarboxylation takes place.
Malic enzyme
Malic acid + NADP + CO2 + Pyruvic acid + NADPH2
 Mechanism of photosynthesis
Bundle sheath contain RuBP carboxylase (Rubisco) that fixed CO2 through
Calvin cycle and produce carbohydrate.
• Carbon dioxide is constantly pumped into the bundle sheath cells by the
mesophyll cells, so the carbon dioxide concentration around Rubisco is always
higher. This reduces photorespiration.
iv. And the pyruvic acid returns to the mesophyll cell and combines with ATP to
reproduce PEP.
Phosphopyruvate
Pyruvic acid + ATP dikinase PEP
+AMP

6PEP + 6RUBP +6CO2 + 30 ATP + 12 NADPH2

6PEP + 6RUBP + C6H12O6 + 30 ADP +12 NADP

Mechanism of photosynthesis
 Significance of C 4
 It has low photorespiration.
cycle
Because of high affinity of PEP, C plants are able to fix more CO
4 2 at low concentration
of CO 2.

 C 4 plants are adapted to high temperature and intense radiation.

 C 4 plants have high water use efficiency so conserve soil moisture.

 They account for about 23% of terrestrial carbon fixation

 Increasing the number of C 4 plants indicates the changing climate.

 C 4 plants can produce more grain than C 3 plants using less water and nutrients.

Disadvantage
 Utilization of more ATP than C 3 cycle (2 more ATP per molecule of CO2 fixed)
 Differences in between C3 and C4 plants
C3 plants

C4 plants
 Only C3 cycle is found  Both C3 and C4 cycles are found
 CO2 acceptor is RuBP.  CO2 acceptor is PEP
 First stable product is 3-PGA  First stable product is OAA
 Only one type of chloroplast  Dimorphic chloroplast
 Bundle sheath diffused  Bundle sheath is very much
distinct
 Kranz anatomy absent  Kranz anatomy present
 Optimum temperature for photosynthesis  Optimum temperature for photosynthesis
 More
rangesPhotorespiration.
from 100 C to 250 C.  Photorespiration
ranges from 300 C toless.
450 C.
 Cannot operate in very
Photosynthetically low CO2 concentration
less efficient  Can operate in very low
 Photosynthetically CO2efficient
more concentration
 E.g. Rice, Wheat, Mango, Apple, etc.  E.g. Maize, Sugarcane, Amaranthus, etc.
 Photorespiration or C2 cycle
Photorespiration is the light dependent uptake of oxygen and release of CO2
without forming ATP.
RuBP accepts O2 instead of CO2 in presence of enzyme RuBisCo. The reaction is
called oxygenation.
 ATP & NADH 2 – not generated (different from normal respiration).
 Enhanced by high light intensity, high temperature, and high O 2 and low CO 2
concentration
 Photorespiration reduces the potential yield of C3 plants growing in tropics.

 Common in C 3 plants, Wasteful process

 Site of photorespiration: chloroplast, peroxisome and mitochondria

 Photorespiration or C2 cycle
Steps
Under high O2 and low CO2 concentration in the atmosphere, the affinity of
RuBisCo for CO2 decreases and affinity for O2 increases.
 Oxidation of RuBP- produce phosphoglyceric acid and 2-phosphoglycolate.
RuBP oxygenase
PGA + phosphoglycolate
RuBP + O2

 PGA is used in the Calvin cycle

 Phosphoglycolate is hydrolyzed to form

glycolate Phosphatase
Phosphoglycolate + H2O Glycolate + H3PO4
 Photorespiration or C2 cycle
 Glycolate is passed into peroxisome of mesophyll and oxidized to glyoxylate
oxidase
Glycolate + O2 Glyoxylate + H2O2
Catalase
2H2O2 2H2O + O2

 Glycoxylate is now converted into the amino acid Glycine.

Transaminase
Glyoxylate Glycine

 Glycine passed to mitochondria and convert into serine.

Decarboxylase
Glycine Serine + CO2
 Photorespiration or C2 cycle
 Serine passes out from mitochondria to peroxisome & converted to glycerate

Serine Glycerate
Glycerate is now diffuse into the chloroplast where it is phosphorylated into 3
PGA
Glycerate + ATP Kinase 3 Phosphoglycerate +
ADP

 PGA is used in the Calvin cycle.

 Photorespiration or C2 cycle
Significance of photorespiration
 Does not produce energy, rather it consumes energy.

 Affinity of RuBiSCo towards CO 2 decrease.

 Reduces rate of photosynthesis in C3 plants and decreases productivity.

 25 percent loss of fixed CO 2 , therefore it is a highly wasteful process.

 Factors affecting Photosynthesis
A. External factors:
1. Light:
The main source of photosynthesis is sunlight. The effect of light on photosynthesis can
be studied under three categories.
Quality of light: Chlorophyll absorb red and blue light of spectrum than green. So,
rate of photosynthesis is higher in red and blue light.
Intensity of light: Increase in light intensity increases the rate of photosynthesis until
the maximum amount of light is being used. But very high intensity of light decreases
the rate of photosynthesis due to photorespiration
Duration of light (Photoperiod): Rate of photosynthesis increases with the increase
in duration of light but decreases as the light duration is more than 12 hours.
 Rate of photosynthesis higher in discontinuous/ intermittent light than continuous
light.
 Factors affecting Photosynthesis
A. External factors:
2. carbondioxide:
 Rate of photosynthesis increases if concentration of CO2 in atm. increased by
1% and decreases beyond this level.
3. Temperature:
 The rate of photosynthesis increases with increase in temperature from 60 C to
370 C. But temperature above 370 C (denature of photosynthetic enzyme) and
below 60 C (low enzymatic activity) decreases the photosynthetic rate.
 Optimum temperature- C3 plants- 10 to 250 C and C4 plants- 30 to 450 C
4. Water:
 Usually water is not a limiting factor, but its deficiency results the wilting and
closing of stomata which decreases the rate of photosynthesis.
 Factors affecting Photosynthesis
A. External factors:
5. Oxygen:
 Increase in the concentration of oxygen reduces the rate of photosynthesis in
many plants (C3 plants) due to photorespiration
6. Minerals:
 The minerals like Mg, Fe, Co, Mn, Cl, etc. are essential for photosynthesis.
 Factors affecting Photosynthesis
B. Internal factors:
1. Chlorophyll content:
 Chlorophyll is one of the important essential components required for
photosynthesis. So the rate of photosynthesis increases with increase in amount of
chlorophyll.
2. Anatomy of photosynthetic parts:
 The position, number and distribution of stomata, thickness of cuticle, presence of
mesophyll cells, etc. are the anatomical factors that influence the rate of
photosynthesis.
3. Accumulation of photosynthetic products:
 The accumulation of carbohydrate in chloroplasts reduces their effective surface and
the photosynthetic processes slows down.
 Factors affecting Photosynthesis
B. Internal factors:
4. Age of leaf:
⚫The rate of photosynthesis increases from young leaf up to its maturity but
decreases in aging of the leaf..
 Experiments on Photosynthesis
EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE THAT OXYGEN IS DURING
EVOLVED PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 REQUIREMENTS
 Apparatus: Beaker, Test tube, Funnel
 Chemicals: Sodium bicarbonate, Pyrogallate Soln.
 Materials: Branches of Hydrilla plant
 THEORY
 PROCEDURE
 OBSERVATION
 CONCLUSION
 PRECAUTIONS
 Experiments on Photosynthesis
EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE THE CARBONDIOXIDE IS NECESSARY
FOR
PHOTOSYNTHESIS (Molls half leaf experiment)
 REQUIREMENTS
 Apparatus: A wide mouthed bottle, split cork, Beaker,
Test tube, petri dish, tripod stand, wire gauze, forcep
 Chemicals: KOH soln, Iodine, Vasceline, Alcohol
 Materials: A destarched potted plant

 THEORY
 PROCEDURE
 OBSERVATION
 CONCLUSION
 PRECAUTIONS
 Experiments on Photosynthesis
EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE THAT CHLOROPHYLL IS ESSENTIAL
FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 REQUIREMENTS

 THEORY

 PROCEDURE

 OBSERVATION

 CONCLUSION

 PRECAUTIONS
 Experiments on Photosynthesis
EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE THAT LIGHT IS ESSENTIAL FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 REQUIREMENTS

 THEORY

 PROCEDURE

 OBSERVATION

 CONCLUSION

 PRECAUTIONS