TRANSPORT LAYER
Process-to-Process Delivery:
UDP & TCP
23.1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Note
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery.
23.2
Figure 23.1 Types of data deliveries
23.3
Note
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery.
Port Addressing
Segmentation and Reassembly
Connection Control
Error Control
Flow Control
23.4
Figure 23.2 Port numbers
23.5
Figure 23.3 IP addresses versus port numbers
23.6
Figure 23.4 IANA ranges
23.7
Figure 23.5 Socket address
23.8
Figure 23.6 Multiplexing and demultiplexing
23.9
Figure 23.8 Position of UDP, TCP, and SCTP in TCP/IP suite
23.11
23-2 USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is called a connectionless, unreliable transport protocol.
It does not add anything to the services of IP except to provide process-to-process
communication instead of host-to-host communication.
Topics discussed in this section:
Well-Known Ports for UDP
User Datagram
Checksum
UDP Operation
Use of UDP
23.12
Table 23.1 Well-known ports used with UDP
23.13
Figure 23.9 User datagram format
23.16
Note
UDP length
= IP length – IP header’s length
23.17
Figure 23.10 Pseudoheader for checksum calculation
23.18
Example 23.2
Figure 23.11 shows the checksum calculation for a very small user datagram with only 7 bytes of
data. Because the number of bytes of data is odd, padding is added for checksum calculation. The
pseudoheader as well as the padding will be dropped when the user datagram is delivered to IP.
23.19
Figure 23.11 Checksum calculation of a simple UDP user datagram
23.20
The following is a dump of a UDP header in hexadecimal format.
0632000DOOlCE217
a. What is the source port number?
b. What is the destination port number?
c. What is the total length of the user datagram?
d. What is the length of the data?
e. Is the packet directed from a client to a server or vice versa?
f. What is the client process?
23-3 TCP
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol; it creates a virtual connection between two TCPs to
send data. In addition, TCP uses flow and error control mechanisms at the transport level.
Topics discussed in this section:
TCP Services
TCP Features
Segment
A TCP Connection
Flow Control
Error Control
23.23
Table 23.2 Well-known ports used by TCP
23.24
Figure 23.13 Stream delivery
23.25
Figure 23.14 Sending and receiving buffers
23.26
Figure 23.15 TCP segments
23.27
Note
The bytes of data being transferred in each connection are numbered
by TCP.
The numbering starts with a randomly generated number.
23.28
Example 23.3
The following shows the sequence number for each segment:
23.29
Note
The value in the sequence number field of a segment defines the
number of the first data byte
contained in that segment.
23.30
Note
The value of the acknowledgment field in a segment defines
the number of the next byte a party expects to receive.
The acknowledgment number is cumulative.
23.31
Figure 23.16 TCP segment format
23.32
Figure 23.17 Control field
23.33
Table 23.3 Description of flags in the control field
23.34
Figure 23.18 Connection establishment using three-way handshaking
23.35
Note
A SYN segment cannot carry data, but it consumes one sequence
number.
23.36
Note
A SYN + ACK segment cannot
carry data, but does consume one
sequence number.
23.37
Note
An ACK segment, if carrying no data, consumes no sequence number.
23.38
Figure 23.19 Data transfer
23.39
Figure 23.20 Connection termination using three-way handshaking
23.40
Note
The FIN segment consumes one sequence number if it does
not carry data.
23.41
Note
The FIN + ACK segment consumes
one sequence number if it
does not carry data.
23.42
Figure 23.21 Half-close
23.43
Figure 23.22 Sliding window
23.44
Note
A sliding window is used to make transmission more efficient as well
as
to control the flow of data so that the destination does not become
overwhelmed with data.
TCP sliding windows are byte-oriented.
23.45
Example 23.4
What is the value of the receiver window (rwnd) for host A if the receiver, host B, has a buffer size
of 5000 bytes and 1000 bytes of received and unprocessed data?
Solution
The value of rwnd = 5000 − 1000 = 4000. Host B can receive only 4000 bytes of data before
overflowing its buffer. Host B advertises this value in its next segment to A.
23.46
Example 23.5
What is the size of the window for host A if the value of rwnd is 3000 bytes and the value of cwnd is
3500 bytes?
Solution
The size of the window is the smaller of rwnd and cwnd, which is 3000 bytes.
23.47
Example 23.6
Figure 23.23 shows an unrealistic example of a sliding window. The sender has sent bytes up to
202. We assume that cwnd is 20 (in reality this value is thousands of bytes). The receiver has sent
an acknowledgment number of 200 with an rwnd of 9 bytes (in reality this value is thousands of
bytes). The size of the sender window is the minimum of rwnd and cwnd, or 9 bytes. Bytes 200 to
202 are sent, but not acknowledged. Bytes 203 to 208 can be sent without worrying about
acknowledgment. Bytes 209 and above cannot be sent.
23.48
Figure 23.23 Example 23.6
23.49
Note
Some points about TCP sliding windows:
❏ The size of the window is the lesser of rwnd and
cwnd.
❏ The source does not have to send a full window’s
worth of data.
❏ The window can be opened or closed by the
receiver, but should not be shrunk.
❏ The destination can send an acknowledgment at
any time as long as it does not result in a shrinking
window.
❏ The receiver can temporarily shut down the
window; the sender, however, can always send a
segment of 1 byte after the window is shut down.
23.50
Note
ACK segments do not consume sequence numbers and are not
acknowledged.
23.51
Note
In modern implementations, a retransmission occurs if the
retransmission timer expires or three duplicate ACK segments have
arrived.
23.52
Note
No retransmission timer is set for an ACK segment.
23.53
Note
Data may arrive out of order and be temporarily stored by the
receiving TCP,
but TCP guarantees that no out-of-order segment is delivered to the
process.
23.54
Figure 23.24 Normal operation
23.55
Figure 23.25 Lost segment
23.56
Note
The receiver TCP delivers only ordered data to the process.
23.57
Figure 23.26 Fast retransmission
23.58
23-4 SCTP
Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) is a new reliable, message-oriented transport
layer protocol. SCTP, however, is mostly designed for Internet applications that have recently
been introduced. These new applications need a more sophisticated service than TCP can
provide.
Topics discussed in this section:
SCTP Services and Features
Packet Format
An SCTP Association
Flow Control and Error Control
23.59
Note
SCTP is a message-oriented, reliable protocol that combines the best
features of UDP and TCP.
23.60
Table 23.4 Some SCTP applications
23.61
Figure 23.27 Multiple-stream concept
23.62
Note
An association in SCTP can involve multiple streams.
23.63
Figure 23.28 Multihoming concept
23.64
Note
SCTP association allows multiple IP addresses for each end.
23.65
Note
In SCTP, a data chunk is numbered using a TSN.
23.66
Note
To distinguish between different streams, SCTP uses an SI.
23.67
Note
To distinguish between different data chunks belonging to the same
stream, SCTP uses SSNs.
23.68
Note
TCP has segments; SCTP has packets.
23.69
Figure 23.29 Comparison between a TCP segment and an SCTP packet
23.70
Note
In SCTP, control information and data information are carried in
separate chunks.
23.71
Figure 23.30 Packet, data chunks, and streams
23.72
Note
Data chunks are identified by three items: TSN, SI, and SSN.
TSN is a cumulative number identifying the association; SI defines the
stream; SSN defines the chunk in a stream.
23.73
Note
In SCTP, acknowledgment numbers are used to acknowledge only
data chunks;
control chunks are acknowledged by other control chunks if
necessary.
23.74
Figure 23.31 SCTP packet format
23.75
Note
In an SCTP packet, control chunks come before data chunks.
23.76
Figure 23.32 General header
23.77
Table 23.5 Chunks
23.78
Note
A connection in SCTP is called an association.
23.79
Note
No other chunk is allowed in a packet carrying an INIT or INIT ACK
chunk.
A COOKIE ECHO or a COOKIE ACK chunk can carry data chunks.
23.80
Figure 23.33 Four-way handshaking
23.81
Note
In SCTP, only DATA chunks
consume TSNs;
DATA chunks are the only chunks
that are acknowledged.
23.82
Figure 23.34 Simple data transfer
23.83
Note
The acknowledgment in SCTP defines the cumulative TSN, the TSN of
the last data chunk received in order.
23.84
Figure 23.35 Association termination
23.85
Figure 23.36 Flow control, receiver site
23.86
Figure 23.37 Flow control, sender site
23.87
Figure 23.38 Flow control scenario
23.88
Figure 23.39 Error control, receiver site
23.89
Figure 23.40 Error control, sender site
23.90
