Chapter 6

Control System
 Control System
• Two approaches are available for the analysis and
design of feedback control systems. The first, is
known as the classical, or frequency-domain,
technique.
• This approach is based on converting a system’s
differential equation to a transfer function, thus
generating a mathematical model of the system
that algebraically relates a representation of the
output to a representation of the input.
• Replacing a differential equation with an
algebraic equation not only simplifies the
representation of individual subsystems but
also simplifies modelling interconnected
subsystems
• The primary disadvantage of the classical
approach is its limited applicability:
• It can be applied only to linear, time-invariant
systems or systems that can be approximated
as such.
• A major advantage of frequency-domain
techniques is that they rapidly provide stability
and transient response information.
• Thus, we can immediately see the effects of
varying system parameters until an acceptable
design is met.
• The state-space approach (also referred to as the
modern, or time-domain, approach) is a unified
method for modelling, analysing, and designing a wide
range of systems. For example, the state-space
approach can be used to represent nonlinear systems
that have backlash, saturation, and dead zone.
• Also, it can handle, conveniently, systems with nonzero
initial conditions.
• Time-varying systems, (for example, missiles with
varying fuel levels or lift in an aircraft flying through a
wide range of altitudes) can be represented in state
space.
• Many systems do not have just a single input and
a single output. Multiple-input, multiple-output
systems (such as a vehicle with input direction
and input velocity yielding an output direction
and an output velocity) can be compactly
represented in state space with a model similar
in form and complexity to that used for single-
input, single-output systems.
 PID Controllers
• PID Stands for
– P  Proportional
– I  Integral
– D  Derivative
 Introduction
• The usefulness of PID controls lies in their general
applicability to most control systems.

• In particular, when the mathematical model of the plant

is not known and therefore analytical design methods
cannot be used, PID controls prove to be most useful.

• In the field of process control systems, it is well known

that the basic and modified PID control schemes have
proved their usefulness in providing satisfactory control,
although in many given situations they may not provide
optimal control.
 Introduction
• It is interesting to note that more than half of the
industrial controllers in use today are PID controllers or
modified PID controllers.

• Because most PID controllers are adjusted on-site, many

different types of tuning rules have been proposed in the
literature.

• Using these tuning rules, delicate and fine tuning of PID

controllers can be made on-site.
 Four Modes of Controllers

• Each mode of control has specific advantages and

limitations.

• On-Off (Bang Bang) Control

• Proportional (P)
• Proportional plus Integral (PI)
• Proportional plus Derivative (PD)
• Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative (PID)

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 On-Off Control
• This is the simplest form of control.

Set point

Error
Output
 Proportional Control (P)
• In proportional mode, there is a continuous linear relation
between value of the controlled variable and position of the
final control element.
𝑟 (𝑡) 𝑒 (𝑡 ) 𝑐 𝑝(𝑡 )=𝐾 𝑝 𝑒(𝑡) 𝑐 (𝑡 )
𝐾𝑝 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑏( 𝑡 ) -

𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘

• Output of proportional controller is

𝑐 𝑝(𝑡 )=𝐾 𝑝 𝑒(𝑡)
• The transfer function can be written as

𝐶 𝑝 (𝑠)
=𝐾
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑝 12
 Proportional Controllers (P)
• As the gain is increased the system responds faster to
changes in set-point but becomes progressively
underdamped and eventually unstable.

13
 Proportional Plus Integral Controllers (PI)
• Integral control describes a controller in which the output
rate of change is dependent on the magnitude of the
input.
• Specifically, a smaller amplitude input causes a slower
rate of change of the output.

14
 Proportional Plus Integral Controllers (PI)
• The major advantage of integral controllers is that they have
the unique ability to return the controlled variable back to
the exact set point following a disturbance.

• Disadvantages of the integral control mode are that it

responds relatively slowly to an error signal and that it can
initially allow a large deviation at the instant the error is
produced.

• This can lead to system instability and cyclic operation. For

this reason, the integral control mode is not normally used
alone, but is combined with another control mode.
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 Proportional Plus Integral Control (PI)

𝐾 𝑖∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
∫
𝑟 (𝑡) 𝑒 (𝑡 ) 𝐾 𝑝 𝑒(𝑡)+
+ 𝑐 𝑝𝑖 ( 𝑡 ) 𝑐 (𝑡 )
𝐾𝑝 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑏( 𝑡 ) -

𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘

𝑐𝑝𝑖 ( 𝑡 )= 𝐾 𝑝 𝑒 ( 𝑡 ) +𝐾 𝑖∫ 𝑒 (𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡 16
Proportional Plus Integral Plus Derivative Control (PID)

𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑐 𝑝𝑖𝑑 ( 𝑡 )=𝐾 𝑝 𝑒 (𝑡 ) +𝐾 𝑖∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡+ 𝐾 𝑑
𝑑𝑡
𝐶 𝑝 𝑖𝑑 (𝑠 ) 1
=𝐾 + 𝐾 𝑖 + 𝐾 𝑑 𝑠
𝐸 (𝑠) 𝑝 𝑠

17
Proportional Plus Integral Plus Derivative Control (PID)
• Although PD control deals neatly with the overshoot and ringing
problems associated with proportional control it does not cure the
problem with the steady-state error. Fortunately it is possible to
eliminate this while using relatively low gain by adding an integral
term to the control function which becomes

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 The Characteristics of P, I, and D controllers

CL RESPONSE RISE TIME OVERSHOOT SETTLING TIME S-S ERROR

Kp Decrease Increase Small Change Decrease

Ki Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate

Small Small
Kd Decrease Decrease
Change Change
 Tips for Designing a PID Controller

1. Obtain an open-loop response and determine what needs to be improved

2. Add a proportional control to improve the rise time
3. Add a derivative control to improve the overshoot
4. Add an integral control to eliminate the steady-state error
5. Adjust each of Kp, Ki, and Kd until you obtain a desired overall response.

• Lastly, please keep in mind that you do not need to implement all three
controllers (proportional, derivative, and integral) into a single system, if
not necessary. For example, if a PI controller gives a good enough response
(like the above example), then you don't need to implement derivative
controller to the system. Keep the controller as simple as possible.