THE ROMAN RIDGE SCHOOL

IGCSE
Founded 2002

SCIENCE
Mr. Theophilus Aidoo
 Topic: Atoms, Elements and Compounds
Sub-Topics:
 Atomic structure
 Ions and ionic bonds
 Molecules and covalent bonds
 The Periodic Table
Aim: To examine the structure of an Atom and
its constituents.
Success Criteria:
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
 Use diagrams to show how bonds form and
draw ionic structures.
 Draw dot and cross diagrams for covalent compounds.
 Describe the differences in properties between ionic and covalent
compounds.
 Use proton number and the simple structure of atoms to explain
the basis of the Periodic Table.
 Describe Isotopes with examples.
 ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES
Element
A substance made of atoms that all contain the same
number of protons (one type of atom) and cannot be split
into anything simpler.
• There is a limited number of elements and all elements
are found on the Periodic Table.
Compound
A pure substance made up of two or more
elements chemically combined. There is
an unlimited number of compounds.
• Compounds cannot be separated into their elements
by physical means. E.g. Copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4),
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Mixture
A combination of two or more substances (elements and/or
compounds) that are not chemically combined. Mixtures
can be separated by physical methods such as filtration or
evaporation. E.g. sand and water, oil and water, sulphur
powder and iron filings.
• Atoms are the basic building blocks of
all substances. There are 92 different
naturally-occurring types of atom. They
are the smallest amount of any
element we can have.
• Atomic Structure
The nucleus of an atom contains protons
and neutrons; the nucleus is surrounded
by orbiting electrons. An atom is mostly
empty space! If an atom were expanded
to the size of a stadium, the nucleus
would be the size of a pea at the centre of
the pitch.
• The atomic number (or proton
number) is the number of protons in
the nucleus of an atom. The symbol for
this number is (Z). It is also the number
of electrons present in an atom and
determines the position of the element
on the Periodic Table.
• Nucleon number (or mass number) is
the total number of
protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom. The symbol for this number
is (A).The nucleon number minus the
proton number gives you the number
of neutrons of an atom
# Note that protons and neutrons can
collectively be called nucleons.
Elements are made of tiny particles of matter called atoms.
Each atom is made of subatomic particles called protons, neutrons and electrons. Their
size is so tiny that we can’t really compare their masses in conventional units such as
kilograms or grams, so a unit called the relative atomic mass is used.
One relative atomic mass unit is equal to the mass of a carbon-12 atom. All other
elements are measured relative to the mass of a carbon-12 atom and since these are
ratios, the relative atomic mass has no units. Hydrogen for example has a relative atomic
mass of 1, meaning that 12 atoms of hydrogen would have exactly the same mass as 1
atom of carbon
Electrons (symbol e–)
• These subatomic particles
move very fast around the
nucleus.
• They move in orbital paths
called shells.
• The mass of the electron is
negligible; hence the mass
of an atom is contained
within the nucleus where
the neutron and proton
reside.
 THE PERIODIC TABLE
Elements are arranged on the Periodic table in order of increasing atomic number where each
element has one proton more than the element preceding it.
• Hydrogen has 1 proton, helium has 2 protons, lithium has 3 etc.
• The table is arranged in vertical columns called Groups numbered I – VIII and in rows
called Periods.
• Elements in the same group have the same amount of electrons in their outer shell, which
gives them similar chemical properties
ISOTOPES
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that contain the same number of protons and electrons but a
different number of neutrons.
• The symbol for an isotope is the chemical symbol (or word) followed by a dash and then the mass number.
• So C-14 is the isotope of carbon which contains 6 protons, 6 electrons and 14 – 6 = 8 neutrons.
 ELECTRON SHELLS
Electronic structure
• We can represent the structure of the atom in two ways:
using diagrams called electron shell diagrams or by writing
out a special notation called the electronic configuration
Electron shell diagrams
• Electrons orbit the nucleus in shells (or energy levels) and
each shell has a different amount of energy associated with
it. The further away from the nucleus then the more
energy a shell has.
• Electrons occupy the shell closest to the nucleus which can
hold only 2 electrons and which go in separately. When a
shell becomes full electrons then fill the next shell. The
second shell can hold 8 electrons and the third shell can
hold eighteen electrons and the electrons organise
themselves in pairs in these shells.
• The outermost shell of an atom is called the valence shell
and an atom is much more stable if it can manage to
completely fill this shell with electrons.
 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
The arrangement of electrons in shells can also be explained using numbers. There is a
clear relationship between the outer shell electrons and how the Periodic Table is designed.
• The number of notations in the electronic configuration will show the number of shells of electrons
the atom has, showing the Period in which that element is in.
• The last notation shows the number of outer electrons the atom has, showing the Group that
element is in.
• Elements in the same Group have the same number of outer shell electrons.
 IONS & IONIC BONDS
The Formation of Ions
• Ions
An ion is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by
the loss or gain of electrons. This loss or gain of electrons takes place to gain
a full outer shell of electrons. The electronic structure of an ion will be the same as that
of a noble gas – such as helium, neon and argon.
 FORMATION OF POSITIVELY CHARGED SODIUM ION
All metals lose electrons to other atoms to become positively charged ions. Non-
metals gain electrons from other atoms to become negatively charged ions. The
positive and negative charges are held together by the strong electrostatic
forces of attraction between opposite. This is what holds ionic compounds
together.
FORMATION OF NEGATIVELY CHARGED CHLORIDE ION
 Molecules & Covalent Bonds
Single Covalent Bonds
• Covalent compounds are formed when electrons are shared between
atoms. Only non-metal elements participate in covalent bonding.
• As in ionic bonding, each atom gains a full outer shell of electrons. When
two or more atoms are chemically bonded together, we describe them as
‘molecules’.
OTHER EXAMPLES
ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT IN COMPLEX COVALENT MOLECULES
Comparing Ionic & Covalent Compounds
• Ionic compounds
– Have high melting and boiling points so ionic compounds are usually solid at room
temperature
– Not volatile so they don’t evaporate easily
– Usually water-soluble as both ionic compounds and water are polar
– Conduct electricity in molten state or in solution as they have ions that can move and
carry a charge
• Covalent compounds
– Have low melting and boiling points so covalent compounds are
usually liquids or gases at room temperature
– Usually volatile which is why many covalent organic compounds have distinct aromas
– Usually not water-soluble as covalent compounds tend to be nonpolar but can dissolve
in organic solvents
– Cannot conduct electricity as all electrons are involved in bonding so there are no free
electrons or ions to carry the charge
 MELTING & BOILING POINTS OF IONIC & COVALENT COMPOUNDS
• Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points. This is because
the oppositely charged ions in the lattice structure are attracted to each
other by strong electrostatic forces which hold them firmly in place.

• Simple covalent substances, such as carbon dioxide and methane, have

• When one of these substances melts or boils, it is these

• Less energy is needed to break the molecules apart, so they have lower
melting points and boiling points than ionic compounds
 MACROMOLECULES
Giant Covalent Structures
Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon which have giant covalent structures. This class of
substances contains a lot of non-metal atoms, each joined to adjacent atoms by covalent bonds
forming a giant lattice structure.
Giant covalent structures have high melting and boiling points as they have many strong covalent
bonds that need to be broken down. Large amounts of heat energy are needed to overcome
these forces and break down bonds.
 Uses of Giant Covalent Structures
• Diamond
Each carbon atom bonds with four other carbons, forming a tetrahedron. All the covalent bonds are identical and
strong with no weak intermolecular forces.
• Diamond does not conduct electricity, has a very high melting point and is extremely hard and dense (3.51 g/cm 3)
Diamond is used in jewelry and as cutting tools. The cutting edges of discs used to cut bricks and concrete are tipped
with diamonds. Heavy-duty drill bits and tooling equipment are also diamond-tipped

Graphite
Each carbon atom is bonded to three others forming layers of hexagonal-shaped forms, leaving one free electron per
carbon atom. These free electrons exist in between the layers and are free to move and carry charge, hence graphite
can conduct electricity. The covalent bonds within the layers are very strong but the layers are connected to each
other by weak intermolecular forces only, hence the layers can slide over each other making
graphite slippery and smooth
Uses of Graphite :
– Conducts electricity
– Has a very high melting point
– Is soft and slippery, less dense than diamond (2.25 g/cm3)
Graphite is used in pencils and as an industrial lubricant, in engines and in locks
• It is also used to make non-reactive electrodes for electrolysis.
The Structure of Silicon(IV)
Oxide (Silicon Dioxide)
• SiO2 is a macromolecular
compound which occurs naturally
as sand and quartz
• Each oxygen atom forms covalent
bonds with 2 silicon atoms and
each silicon atom in turn forms
covalent bonds with 4 oxygen
atoms
• A tetrahedron is formed with one
silicon atom and four oxygen
atoms, similar as in diamond.
 Properties Of Diamond & Silicon(IV)
SiO2 has lots of very strong covalent bonds and no
intermolecular forces so it has similar properties to
diamond
• It is very hard, has a very high boiling point, is
insoluble in water and does not conduct electricity
• SiO2 is cheap since it is available naturally and is
used to make sandpaper and to line the inside of
furnaces.