Lesson 4
TRACE EVIDENCE
Wherever he steps, whatever he touches, whatever he leaves, even unconsciously, will serve as silent
witness against him. Not only his fingerprints or his footprints, but his hair, the fibers from his clothes,
the glass he breaks, the tool marks he leaves, the paint he scratches, the blood or semen he deposits or
collects - All of these and more bear mute witness against him. This is evidence that does not forget. It is
not confused by the excitement of the moment. It is not absent because human witnesses are. It cannot
perjure itself; it cannot be wholly absent. Only its interpretation can err. Only human failure to find it,
study and understand it, can diminish its value." (Crime Investigation , Kirk, Paul. L, New York :
Interscience Publishers, 1953.)
MR. RUSSEL D. JIMENEZ, LPT
Faculty, College of Arts and Sciences, Pablo Borbon Campus
Batangas State University – The National Engineering University
Overview
• Forensic science uses evidence to investigate crimes and help identify
perpetrators and victims. This field expanded when Edmond Locard
began the study of trace evidence with Locard's Exchange
Principle in the early 1900s.
Every contact leaves a trace
• Depending upon how the victim, perpetrator and environment interact
with each other, different types of trace evidence will be produced.
• Trace evidence can be used to link people or objects to places, other
people or other objects, and often serves as a starting point, or lead, for
a particular line of investigation. Trace evidence helps to put together
pieces of the investigative puzzle
Types of Trace Evidence
Most common examples:
• HAIRS AND FIBERS
• Hair is encountered as physical evidence in
a wide variety of crimes.
• Although it is not yet possible to
individualize a human hair to any single
head or body through its morphology, it still
has value as physical evidence
Human hair is one of the most frequently found pieces of
evidence at the scene of a violent crime. It can provide
a link between the criminal and the act.
From hair one can determine:
Human or animal
Race
Origin
Manner in which hair was removed
Treated hair
Drugs ingested
Introduction
Hair is encountered as physical
evidence in a wide variety of
crimes.
Although it is not yet possible to
individualize a human hair to any
single head or body through its
morphology, it still has value as
physical evidence.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein 6
Introduction
When properly collected and
submitted to the laboratory
accompanied by an adequate number
of standard/reference samples, hair
can provide strong corroborative
evidence for placing an individual at
a crime scene.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein 7
Morphology of Hair
Hair is an appendage of the skin that grows
out of an organ known as the hair follicle.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein 8
Morphology of Hair
The length of a hair extends from
its root or bulb embedded in the
follicle, continues into a shaft,
and terminates at a tip end.
It is the shaft, which is composed
of three layers—the cuticle,
cortex, and medulla—that is
subjected to the most intense
examination by the forensic
scientist.
FORENSICSCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein 9
Cuticle and Cortex
The cuticle is the scale structure covering the
exterior of the hair.
The scales always point towards the tip of the hair.
The scale pattern is useful in species identification.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein 10
Cuticle and Cortex
The cortex is the main body of the
hair shaft.
Its major forensic importance is the fact
that it is embedded with the pigment
granules that impart hair with color.
The color, shape, and distribution of these
granules provide the criminalist with
important points of comparison among
the hairs of different individuals.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein 11
Medulla
The medulla is a cellular column
running through the center of the hair.
The medullary index measures the diameter of
the medulla relative to the diameter of the hair
shaft.
For humans, the medulla generally occupies
less than one-third the diameter of the shaft,
while for animals it is generally one-half or
greater.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein 12
Medulla
The medulla may be continuous,
interrupted, fragmented, or absent.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein 13
Medulla
The presence of the medulla varies
from individual to individual and
even among hairs of a given
individual.
Medullae also have different shapes,
depending on the species.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein 14
Root
The root and other surrounding cells in the
hair follicle provide the tools necessary to
produce hair and continue its growth.
When pulled from the head, some translucent
tissue surrounding the hair’s shaft near the
root may be found. This is called a follicular
tag.
By using DNA analysis on the follicular tag,
the hair may be individualized.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein 15
Comparing Strands
The comparison microscope is an indispensable
tool for comparing the morphological
characteristics of hair.
When comparing strands of human hair, the
criminalist is particularly interested in matching
the color, length, and diameter.
A careful microscopic examination of hair will
reveal morphological features that can
distinguish human hair from the hair of
animals.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein 16
Comparing Strands
Scale structure, medullary index, and
medullary shape are particularly
important in animal hair identification.
Other important features for comparing
human hair are:
The presence or absence of a medulla.
The distribution, shape, and color intensity
of the pigment granules present in the
cortex.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein 17
Comparing Strands
The most common request is to determine
whether or not hair recovered at the crime
scene compares to hair removed from the
suspect.
However, microscopic hair examinations
tend to be subjective and highly
dependent on the skills and integrity of
the analyst.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein 18
Questions
1. Can the body area from which a hair
originated be determined?
2. Can the racial origin of hair be
determined?
3. Can the age and sex of an individual be
determined from a hair sample?
4. Is it possible to determine if a hair was
forcibly removed from the body?
(continued)
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein 19
Questions
5. Are efforts being made to
individualize human hair?
6. Is it possible to determine
whether hair came from a
deceased individual?
7. Can DNA individualize a human
hair?
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein 20
Hair and DNA
Recent major breakthroughs in DNA
profiling have extended this technology
to the individualization of human hair.
The probability of detecting DNA in hair
roots is more likely for hair being
examined in its anagen or early growth
phase as opposed to its catagen (middle)
or telogen (final) phases.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein 21
Hair and DNA
Often, when hair is forcibly removed
a follicular tag, a translucent piece of
tissue surrounding the hair’s shaft
near the root may be present.
This has proven to be a rich source
of nuclear DNA associated with hair.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein 22
Hair and Mitochondrial DNA
Mitochondrial DNA can be extracted from the
hair shaft.
Mitochondrial DNA is found in cellular
material located outside of the nucleus and it
is transmitted only from the mother to child.
As a rule, all positive microscopic hair
comparisons must be confirmed by DNA
analysis.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein 23
Collection and Preservation
Hair samples are also collected from
the victim of suspicious deaths
during an autopsy.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein 24
Fiber Evidence
NOTE: Fabric is the type of material and fibers are the
“threads” that make up the fabric
The use of fiber evidence in court cases is used many
times to connect the suspect to the victim or to the
crime scene. In the case of Wayne Williams,
fibers were the entire case. Williams was
convicted in 1982 based on carpet fibers that were
found in his home, car and on several murder
victims. Although this case is unusual, fibers are
generally considered of greater value as evidence
than that of rootless hairs since they may contain a
greater number of variables, thus showing more
individual characteristics. 25
Polymers
Synthetic fibers are made of polymers which are
long string of repeating chemical units.
The word polymer means many (poly) units (mer).
The repeating units of a polymer are called
monomers.
By varying the chemical structure of the monomers
or by varying the way they are weaved together,
polymers are created that have different
properties.
As a result of these differences, forensically they can
be distinguished from one another.
26
Analysis
of
Fibrous
Material
U.S. Department of Justice
FBI, April 1999
27
Types of Fibers
• Synthetic • Natural
Polyester
Silk
Rayon
Cotton
Nylon
Wool
Acetate
Mohair
Acrylic
Cashmere
Spandex
28
Classification
Classified according to their origin:
Vegetable or cellulose
Animal or protein
Mineral
29
Cellulose Fibers
• Cotton--vegetable fiber. Strong, tough, flexible;
moisture absorbent; not shape retentive
• Ramie--vegetable fiber. Less flexible than cotton
so its often blended with cotton
• Rayon--first man-made fiber; soft, lustrous,
versatile fiber
Cellulose esters--cellulose is chemically altered to
create an entirely new compound not found in
nature.
• Acetate--less expensive, less polluting than rayon
30
Fiber Comparison
Can you tell the difference(s) between the cotton on
the left and the rayon on the right?
Petroleum Plastics
(Made from derivatives of petroleum,
coal and natural gas)
• Nylon--most durable man-made fabric;
extremely light weight
• Polyester--most widely used man-made
fiber
• Acrylic--provides warmth from a
lightweight, soft and resilient fabric
• Spandex--extreme elastic properties
32
Protein Fibers
• Wool--animal fiber
coming most often from
sheep but may be goat
(mohair), rabbit (angora),
camel, mink, beaver
• Silk--animal fiber that is
spun by a silk worm to
make its cocoon; fiber
reflects light and has
insulating properties
Wool Fibers (400X)
33
Mineral Fibers
• Asbestos--a natural fiber that was used in
fire-resistant substances
• Metallics (mylar)--a manufactured mineral
fiber
• Fiberglass--another manufactured mineral
fiber
34
Fabric Production
Fabrics are composed of individual threads
or yarns, made of fibers, that are knitted,
woven, bonded, crocheted, felted, knotted or
laminated. Most are either woven or knitted.
The degree of stretch, absorbency, water
repellence, softness and durability are all
individual qualities of the different fabrics.
35
Woven Fabric
Woven fabric are made by interlacing warp
(lengthwise) and weft (filling) yarns. Warp run
the length of the fabric and parallel to the selvage
which is the edge of the fabric. Weft cross over
and under the warp threads.
Types include:
Plain
Twill
Satin
36
Woven Fabric
PLAIN
Simplest and most common
weave
Warp and weft pass under
each other alternately
Create even patterns of 1/1
and 2/2
Design resembles a
checkerboard
37
Woven Fabric
TWILL
Create by passing the warp
yearn over one to three weft
yearns before going under
one
Makes a diagonal weave
Design resembles a stair
steps
Denim is the most obvious
example
38
Woven Fabric
SATIN
The yarn interlacing is
not uniform
Creates long floats
Interlacing weave passes
over four or more yarns
Satin is the most obvious
example
39
Knitted Fabric
Knitted fabrics are made by interlocking loops into a
specific arrangement. It may be one continuous
thread or a combination. Either way, the yarn is
formed into successive rows of loops and then
drawn through another series of loops to make the
fabric..
Diagram:
40
Identification and
Comparison of Fibers
• Microscopic examination
– Color--compositional differences in the dyes
– Fibers surface--delustering particles that may
be added by manufacturers
• Microspectrophotometer--compares fiber
colors through spectral patterns
• Chromatography--gives a more detailed
analysis of the dye composition
41
Identification and
Comparison of Fibers (cont.)
• Polarizing microscope
can be used to determine the refractive indices
of various fibers. The fiber is immersed in a
fluid that has a comparable refractive index.
The disappearance of the Becke line is
observed under the microscope.
In addition, fibers will absorb infrared light in a
characteristic pattern. This can be observed
through the use of an infrared
microspectrophotometer and a microscope.42
Collection of Fiber Evidence
• Bag clothing items individually in paper bags.
Make sure that different items are not placed
on the same surface before being bagged.
• Make tape lifts of exposed skin areas of bodies
and any inanimate objects
• Removed fibers should be folded into a small
sheet of paper and stored in a paper bag
43
Uniqueness
Establishing Individual Characteristics
If there is only one source for the transfer material with a
controlled environment where the contact took place
If there is contamination of several different materials
from surface onto surface two
If there is a method available to characterize the material,
such as applying DNA
Otherwise, trace evidence would have only class
characteristics.
44
Man, I was nailed when those forensic guys found fibers
from the kid’s math assignment in my teeth.
