Data Mining:

Concepts and Techniques

(3rd ed.)

— Chapter 1 —

Arslan Anjum
[email protected]

1
 Course Description and Web Page
 This course will provide a comprehensive introduction to the data
mining process;

 build theoretical and conceptual foundations of key data mining tasks

such as data preprocessing, itemset mining, classification and
clustering;

 discuss analysis and implementation of algorithms; and introduce

major sub-areas such as text and web mining.
 Course Objectives
 Objectives
 To develop the concepts of and the techniques in key data mining

tasks

 To provide hands-on experience with data mining using tools

 To encourage innovative and useful applications of data mining

tasks

 Explore, visualize, and analyze large datasets

 Select and evaluate data mining techniques for the discovery of

relevant knowledge from datasets

 Understand efficiency, scalability, and correctness challenges in

data mining
 Textbook(s)/Supplementary
Readings
 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques,

J. Han, M. Kamber, and J. Pei,

Third Edition, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 2012. (CR!
Get the softcopy from me)
 Reference:
 Web Data Mining,

B. Liu,

Springer, 2006.
 Introduction to Information Retrieval,

C. Manning et al.,

Cambridge University Press, Available Online, 2008.
 Introduction to Data Mining,

V. Tan et al.

Addison-Wesley, 2009.
 Data Mining: Practical Machine Learning Tools and Techniques,

Ian H. Witten, Eibe Frank and Mark A. Hall,

Third Edition, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 2011
 Tools and Technologies
 Weka
 C++ or Java, Matlab, Python
 Grading Policy

Instrument Description Weight

Class Exercises In-class exercises and evaluation 10%
Assignments Assigned during important stages of the course 10%
to apply and practice the learnt concepts
Project One group project 15%
Quizzes In-class (un)announced 15 minutes tests 15%
Mid-Term Exam A single 60-minutes exam from the material 20%
covered during the first 6-7 weeks
Final Exam Will cover the entire course. At least 70% of 30%
the material would be post mid term.

Late Submission Policy: Late submissions are not allowed

 Classroom Policy

1. Attendance is very important, 80% is required, 100% is

recommended.

2. Keep your mobiles switched off or silent

3. Females sit on the right while facing white board

4. Quizzes can be announced or unannounced. 1 quiz would be

dropped out of 5 or 6 quizzes. No retake for quizzes.

5. The plagiarism and cheating cases would be reported to the

Disciplinary Committee.
 Chapter 1. Introduction
 Why Data Mining?
 What Is Data Mining?
 A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining
 What Kind of Data Can Be Mined?
 What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined?
 What Technology Are Used?
 What Kind of Applications Are Targeted?
 Major Issues in Data Mining
 A Brief History of Data Mining and Data Mining Society
 Summary
7
 Why Data Mining?

 The Explosive Growth of Data: from terabytes to petabytes

 Data collection and data availability
 Automated data collection tools, database systems, Web,
computerized society
 Major sources of abundant data
 Business: Web, e-commerce, transactions, stocks, …
 Science: Remote sensing, bioinformatics, scientific simulation, …
 Society and everyone: news, digital cameras, YouTube
 We are drowning in data, but starving for knowledge!
 “Necessity is the mother of invention”—Data mining—Automated
analysis of massive data sets

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 Evolution of Sciences
 Before 1600, empirical science
 1600-1950s, theoretical science
 Each discipline has grown a theoretical component. Theoretical models often
motivate experiments and generalize our understanding.
 1950s-1990s, computational science
 Over the last 50 years, most disciplines have grown a third, computational branch
(e.g. empirical, theoretical, and computational ecology, or physics, or linguistics.)
 Computational Science traditionally meant simulation. It grew out of our inability to
find closed-form solutions for complex mathematical models.
 1990-now, data science
 The flood of data from new scientific instruments and simulations
 The ability to economically store and manage petabytes of data online
 The Internet and computing Grid that makes all these archives universally accessible
 Scientific info. management, acquisition, organization, query, and visualization tasks
scale almost linearly with data volumes. Data mining is a major new challenge!
 Jim Gray and Alex Szalay, The World Wide Telescope: An Archetype for Online Science ,
Comm. ACM, 45(11): 50-54, Nov. 2002

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 Evolution of Database Technology
 1960s:
 Data collection, database creation, IMS and network DBMS
 1970s:
 Relational data model, relational DBMS implementation
 1980s:
 RDBMS, advanced data models (extended-relational, OO, etc.)
 Application-oriented DBMS (spatial, scientific, engineering, etc.)
 1990s:
 Data mining, data warehousing, multimedia databases, and Web
databases
 2000s
 Stream data management and mining
 Data mining and its applications
 Web technology (XML, data integration) and global information systems

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 Chapter 1. Introduction
 Why Data Mining?
 What Is Data Mining?
 A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining
 What Kind of Data Can Be Mined?
 What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined?
 What Technology Are Used?
 What Kind of Applications Are Targeted?
 Major Issues in Data Mining
 A Brief History of Data Mining and Data Mining Society
 Summary
11
 What Is Data Mining?

 Data mining (knowledge discovery from data)

 Extraction of interesting (non-trivial, implicit, previously
unknown and potentially useful) patterns or knowledge from
huge amount of data
 Data mining: a misnomer?

 Alternative names
 Knowledge discovery (mining) in databases (KDD), knowledge
extraction, data/pattern analysis, data archeology, data
dredging, information harvesting, business intelligence, etc.

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 Knowledge Discovery (KDD) Process
 This is a view from
typical database
systems and data
warehousing
communities

 Data mining plays

an essential role in
the knowledge
discovery process

13
Step in the process of knowledge discovery

 It usually involves
 Data cleaning
 Data integration from multiple sources
 Warehousing the data
 Data cube construction
 Data selection for data mining
 Data mining
 Presentation of the mining results
 Patterns and knowledge to be used or stored into
knowledge-base

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 Data Mining in Business Intelligence

Increasing potential
to support
business decisions End User
Decision
Making

Data Presentation Business

Analyst
Visualization Techniques
Data Mining Data
Information Discovery Analyst

Data Exploration
Statistical Summary, Querying, and Reporting

Data Preprocessing/Integration, Data Warehouses

DBA
Data Sources
Paper, Files, Web documents, Scientific experiments, Database Systems
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 KDD Process: A Typical View from ML and
Statistics

Input Data Data Pre- Data Post-

Processing Mining Processing

Data integration Pattern discovery Pattern evaluation

Normalization Association & correlation Pattern selection
Feature selection Classification Pattern interpretation
Clustering
Dimension reduction Pattern visualization
Outlier analysis
…………

 This is a view from typical machine learning and statistics communities

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 Example: Medical Data Mining

 Health care & medical data mining – often

adopted such a view in statistics and machine
learning
 Preprocessing of the data (including feature
extraction and dimension reduction)
 Classification or/and clustering processes
 Post-processing for presentation

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 Chapter 1. Introduction
 Why Data Mining?
 What Is Data Mining?
 A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining
 What Kind of Data Can Be Mined?
 What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined?
 What Technology Are Used?
 What Kind of Applications Are Targeted?
 Major Issues in Data Mining
 A Brief History of Data Mining and Data Mining Society
 Summary
18
 Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining
 Data to be mined
 Database data (extended-relational, object-oriented, heterogeneous,

legacy), data warehouse, transactional data, stream, spatiotemporal,

time-series, sequence, text and web, multi-media, graphs & social
and information networks
 Knowledge to be mined (or: Data mining functions)
 Characterization, discrimination, association, classification,

clustering, trend/deviation, outlier analysis, etc.

 Descriptive vs. predictive data mining

 Multiple/integrated functions and mining at multiple levels

 Techniques utilized
 Data-intensive, data warehouse (OLAP), machine learning, statistics,

pattern recognition, visualization, high-performance, etc.

 Applications adapted
 Retail, telecommunication, banking, fraud analysis, bio-data mining,

stock market analysis, text mining, Web mining, etc. 19

 Chapter 1. Introduction
 Why Data Mining?
 What Is Data Mining?
 A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining
 What Kind of Data Can Be Mined?
 What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined?
 What Technology Are Used?
 What Kind of Applications Are Targeted?
 Major Issues in Data Mining
 A Brief History of Data Mining and Data Mining Society
 Summary
20
 Data Mining: On What Kinds of Data?
 Database-oriented data sets and applications
 Relational database, data warehouse, transactional database
 Advanced data sets and advanced applications
 Data streams and sensor data
 Time-series data, temporal data, sequence data (incl. bio-sequences)
 Structure data, graphs, social networks and multi-linked data
 Object-relational databases
 Heterogeneous databases and legacy databases
 Spatial data and spatiotemporal data
 Multimedia database
 Text databases
 The World-Wide Web

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 Chapter 1. Introduction
 Why Data Mining?
 What Is Data Mining?
 A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining
 What Kind of Data Can Be Mined?
 What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined?
 What Technology Are Used?
 What Kind of Applications Are Targeted?
 Major Issues in Data Mining
 A Brief History of Data Mining and Data Mining Society
 Summary
22
Data Mining Function: (1) Generalization
 Information integration and data warehouse construction
 Data cleaning, transformation, integration, and
multidimensional data model
 Data cube technology
 Scalable methods for computing (i.e., materializing)
multidimensional aggregates
 OLAP (online analytical processing)
 Multidimensional concept description: Characterization
and discrimination
 Generalize, summarize, and contrast data
characteristics, e.g., dry vs. wet region

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 Data Mining Function: (2) Association
and Correlation Analysis
 Frequent patterns (or frequent itemsets)
 What items are frequently purchased together in your
Walmart?
 Association vs. correlation
 A typical association rule
Butter, Bread Milk [20%, 100%](support, confidence)
 Are strongly associated items also strongly correlated?
 How to mine such patterns and rules efficiently in large
datasets?
 How to use such patterns for classification, clustering, and
other applications?
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 Data Mining Function: (2) Association
and Correlation Analysis
Example dataset with 4 items and 5
 XY transactions

 Butter, Bread  Milk Transaction Id Milk Bread Butter Soap

 [20%, 100%] (support, confidence) 1 1 1 0 0
2 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 0 1
4 1 1 1 0
5 0 1 0 0
 Support
 the proportion of transactions in the data set
which contain the itemset
 1/5
 Confidence
 1/1
 What about Bread  Milk ?

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Time and Ordering: Sequential Pattern,
Trend and Evolution Analysis
 Sequence, trend and evolution analysis
 Trend, time-series, and deviation analysis: e.g.,

regression and value prediction

 Sequential pattern mining

 e.g., first buy digital camera, then buy large SD

memory cards
 Periodicity analysis

 Similarity-based analysis

 Mining data streams

 Ordered, time-varying, potentially infinite, data streams

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Structure and Network Analysis

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 Structure and Network Analysis
 Graph mining
 Finding frequent subgraphs (e.g., chemical compounds), trees

(XML), substructures (web fragments)

 Information network analysis
 Social networks: actors (objects, nodes) and relationships (edges)

 e.g., author networks in CS, terrorist networks

 Multiple heterogeneous networks

 A person could be multiple information networks: friends,

family, classmates, …
 Links carry a lot of semantic information: Link mining

 Web mining
 Web is a big information network: from PageRank to Google

 Analysis of Web information networks

 Web community discovery, opinion mining, usage mining, …

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 PageRank

More important websites are likely to receive more

links from other websites.
Data Mining Function: (3) Classification

 Classification and label prediction

 Construct models (functions) based on some training examples
 Describe and distinguish classes or concepts for future prediction
 E.g., classify countries based on (climate), or classify cars
based on (gas mileage)
 Predict some unknown class labels
 Typical methods
 Decision trees, naïve Bayesian classification, support vector
machines, neural networks, rule-based classification, pattern-
based classification, logistic regression, …
 Typical applications:
 Credit card fraud detection, direct marketing, classifying stars,
diseases, web-pages, …

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Data Mining Function: (4) Cluster Analysis

 Unsupervised learning (i.e., Class label is unknown)

 Group data to form new categories (i.e., clusters), e.g.,
cluster houses to find distribution patterns
 Principle: Maximizing intra-class similarity & minimizing
interclass similarity
 Many methods and applications
 Market segmentation
 Recommender systems
 Social network analysis
 Education

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Data Mining Function: (5) Outlier Analysis
 Outlier analysis or anomaly mining
 Outlier: A data object that does not comply with the general
behavior of the data
 Noise or exception? ― One person’s garbage could be another
person’s treasure
 Methods: by product of clustering or regression analysis, …
 Useful in fraud detection, rare events analysis

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 Chapter 1. Introduction
 Why Data Mining?
 What Is Data Mining?
 A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining
 What Kind of Data Can Be Mined?
 What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined?
 What Technology Are Used?
 What Kind of Applications Are Targeted?
 Major Issues in Data Mining
 A Brief History of Data Mining and Data Mining Society
 Summary
33
Data Mining: Confluence of Multiple Disciplines

Machine Pattern Statistics

Learning Recognition

Applications Data Mining Visualization

Algorithm Database High-Performance

Technology Computing

34
Why Confluence of Multiple Disciplines?
 Tremendous amount of data
 Algorithms must be highly scalable to handle such as tera-bytes of
data
 High-dimensionality of data
 Micro-array may have tens of thousands of dimensions
 High complexity of data
 Data streams and sensor data
 Time-series data, temporal data, sequence data
 Structure data, graphs, social networks and multi-linked data
 Heterogeneous databases and legacy databases
 Spatial, spatiotemporal, multimedia, text and Web data
 Software programs, scientific simulations
 New and sophisticated applications
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 Chapter 1. Introduction
 Why Data Mining?
 What Is Data Mining?
 A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining
 What Kind of Data Can Be Mined?
 What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined?
 What Technology Are Used?
 What Kind of Applications Are Targeted?
 Major Issues in Data Mining
 A Brief History of Data Mining and Data Mining Society
 Summary
36
 Applications of Data Mining
 Web page analysis: from web page classification, clustering to
PageRank & HITS algorithms
 Collaborative analysis & recommender systems
 Basket data analysis to targeted marketing
 Biological and medical data analysis: classification, cluster analysis
(microarray data analysis), biological sequence analysis, biological
network analysis
 Data mining and software engineering (e.g., IEEE Computer, Aug.
2009 issue)
 From major dedicated data mining systems/tools (e.g., SAS, MS SQL-
Server Analysis Manager, Oracle Data Mining Tools) to invisible data
mining

37
 Chapter 1. Introduction
 Why Data Mining?
 What Is Data Mining?
 A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining
 What Kind of Data Can Be Mined?
 What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined?
 What Technology Are Used?
 What Kind of Applications Are Targeted?
 Major Issues in Data Mining
 A Brief History of Data Mining and Data Mining Society
 Summary
38
 Major Issues in Data Mining (1)

 Mining Methodology
 Mining various and new kinds of knowledge
 Mining knowledge in multi-dimensional space
 Data mining: An interdisciplinary effort
 Handling noise, uncertainty, and incompleteness of data
 Pattern evaluation and pattern- or constraint-guided mining
 User Interaction
 Interactive mining
 Incorporation of background knowledge
 Presentation and visualization of data mining results

39
 Major Issues in Data Mining (2)

 Efficiency and Scalability

 Efficiency and scalability of data mining algorithms
 Parallel, distributed, stream, and incremental mining methods
 Diversity of data types
 Handling complex types of data
 Mining dynamic, networked, and global data repositories
 Data mining and society
 Social impacts of data mining
 Privacy-preserving data mining
 Invisible data mining

40
 Summary
 Data mining: Discovering interesting patterns and knowledge from
massive amount of data
 A natural evolution of database technology, in great demand, with
wide applications
 A KDD process includes data cleaning, data integration, data
selection, transformation, data mining, pattern evaluation, and
knowledge presentation
 Mining can be performed in a variety of data
 Data mining functionalities: characterization, discrimination,
association, classification, clustering, outlier and trend analysis, etc.
 Data mining technologies and applications
 Major issues in data mining

41
 Class Activity
 Discuss whether or not each of the following activities is a data mining
task.

 A) Dividing the customers of a company according to their gender.

 No. This is a simple database query.
 B) Dividing the customers of a company according to their
profitability.
 No. This is an accounting calculation, followed by the application of a
threshold. However, predicting the profitability of a new customer
would be data mining.
 Data Mining yes/no?
 (c) Computing the total sales of a company.
 No. Again, this is simple accounting.
 (d) Sorting a student database based on student identification
numbers.
 No. Again, this is a simple database query.
 (e) Predicting the outcomes of tossing a (fair) pair of dice.
 No. Since the die is fair, this is a probability calculation. If the die
were not fair, and we needed to estimate the probabilities of each
outcome from the data, then this is more like the problems considered
by data mining. However, in this specific case, solutions to this
problem were developed by mathematicians a long time ago, and
thus, we wouldn’t consider it to be data mining.
 Data Mining yes/no?
 (f)Predicting the future stock price of a company using historical
records.

 Yes. We would attempt to create a model that can predict the

continuous value of the stock price. This is an example of the area of
data mining known as predictive modelling. We could use regression
for this modelling, although researchers in many fields have
developed a wide variety of techniques for predicting time series.
 Data Mining yes/no?
 (g) Monitoring the heart rate of a patient for abnormalities.
 Yes. We would build a model of the normal behavior of heart rate and
raise an alarm when an unusual heart behavior occurred. This would
involve the area of data mining known as anomaly detection. This
could also be considered as a classification problem if we had
examples of both normal and abnormal heart behavior.
 Data Mining yes/no?
 (h) Monitoring seismic waves for earthquake activities.
 Yes. In this case, we would build a model of different types of seismic
wave behavior associated with earthquake activities and raise an
alarm when one of these different types of seismic activity was
observed. This is an example of the area of data mining known as
classification.

 Extracting the frequencies of a sound wave.

 No. This is signal processing.
 Data Mining and Data Privacy
 For each of the following data sets, explain whether or not data
privacy is an important issue.
 (a) Census data collected from 1900–2018.
 No
 (b) IP addresses and visit times of Web users who visit your Website.
 Yes
 (c) Names and addresses of people from the telephone book.
 No
 (d) Names and email addresses collected from the Web.
 No
 Reading
 Read chapter 1 of Han and Kamber Data Mining
book.
 Recommended Reference Books
 S. Chakrabarti. Mining the Web: Statistical Analysis of Hypertex and Semi-Structured Data. Morgan
Kaufmann, 2002
 R. O. Duda, P. E. Hart, and D. G. Stork, Pattern Classification, 2ed., Wiley-Interscience, 2000
 T. Dasu and T. Johnson. Exploratory Data Mining and Data Cleaning. John Wiley & Sons, 2003
 U. M. Fayyad, G. Piatetsky-Shapiro, P. Smyth, and R. Uthurusamy. Advances in Knowledge Discovery and
Data Mining. AAAI/MIT Press, 1996
 U. Fayyad, G. Grinstein, and A. Wierse, Information Visualization in Data Mining and Knowledge
Discovery, Morgan Kaufmann, 2001
 J. Han and M. Kamber. Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques. Morgan Kaufmann, 3 rd ed., 2011
 D. J. Hand, H. Mannila, and P. Smyth, Principles of Data Mining, MIT Press, 2001
 T. Hastie, R. Tibshirani, and J. Friedman, The Elements of Statistical Learning: Data Mining, Inference,
and Prediction, 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, 2009
 B. Liu, Web Data Mining, Springer 2006.
 T. M. Mitchell, Machine Learning, McGraw Hill, 1997
 G. Piatetsky-Shapiro and W. J. Frawley. Knowledge Discovery in Databases. AAAI/MIT Press, 1991
 P.-N. Tan, M. Steinbach and V. Kumar, Introduction to Data Mining, Wiley, 2005
 S. M. Weiss and N. Indurkhya, Predictive Data Mining, Morgan Kaufmann, 1998
 I. H. Witten and E. Frank, Data Mining: Practical Machine Learning Tools and Techniques with Java
Implementations, Morgan Kaufmann, 2nd ed. 2005

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