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Database Systems
Lecture 3
Types of databases, Data Models, Database Management Systems
Schema and Instances
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Today’s agenda
• Types of Databases
• Data Models
▫ Categories
▫ History
• Schemas vs. Instances
• Database schema vs. Database states
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Types of Databases
• Centralized Databases
• Distributed Databases
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Centralized Databases
• Personal Computer Database
▫ normally have a single user who creates the database
updates and maintains the data and reports and
displays
• Central Computer Database
▫ users at remote locations can access the database
using terminals and data communications links
• Client/Server Database
▫ many organizations are downsizing present
applications to these smaller, more cost effective
computers
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Distributed Databases
• Homogenous Database
▫ The homogeneous database means that the
database technology is the same at each of the
locations (or sites) and that the data at various
locations are also compatible
• Heterogeneous Database
▫ different nodes may have different hardware &
software and data structures at various locations
are also incompatible.
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Data Models
• Data Model: A set of concepts to describe the
structure of a database, i.e., structure means, the
data types, relationships, and constraints that
apply to the data.
• Data Model Operations: Most data models
also include a set of basic operations for
specifying retrievals and updates on the
database. Operations on the data model may
include basic operations (insert, delete, modify)
and user-defined operations (compute CGPA).
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Categories of data models
• Conceptual (high-level, semantic) data models:
Provide concepts that are close to the way many users
perceive data. (Also called entity-based or object-
based data models.)
• Physical (low-level, internal) data models: Provide
concepts that describe details of how data is stored in the
computer, typically magnetic disks
• Implementation (representational) data models:
Provide concepts that fall between the above two,
balancing user views with some computer storage details.
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Conceptual Data Model
• An entity represents a real-world object or
concept, such as an employee or a project, that is
described in the database.
• An attribute represents some property of
interest that further describes an entity, such as
the employee's name or salary.
• A relationship among two or more entities
represents an association among two or more
entities, for example, a works-on relationship
between an employee and a project.
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Physical Data Model
• Physical data models describe how data is stored
as files in the computer by representing
information such as record formats, record
orderings, and access paths. An access path is
a structure that makes the search for particular
database records efficient.
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History of Data Models
• Relational Model: proposed in 1970 by E.F. Codd (IBM),
first commercial system in 1981-82. Now in several
commercial products (DB2, ORACLE, SQL Server,
SYBASE, INFORMIX).
Network Model: the first one to be implemented by
Honeywell in 1964-65 (IDS System). Adopted heavily
due to the support by CODASYL (CODASYL - DBTG
report of 1971). Later implemented in a large variety of
systems - IDMS (Cullinet - now CA), DMS 1100 (Unisys),
IMAGE (H.P.), VAX -DBMS (Digital Equipment Corp.).
• Hierarchical Data Model: implemented in a joint effort by
IBM and North American Rockwell around 1965.
Resulted in the IMS family of systems. The most popular
model. Other system based on this model: System 2k
(SAS inc.)
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History of Data Models
• Object-oriented Data Model(s): several models have been
proposed for implementing in a database system. One set
comprises models of persistent O-O Programming
Languages such as C++ (e.g., in OBJECTSTORE or
VERSANT), and Smalltalk (e.g., in GEMSTONE).
Additionally, systems like O2, ORION (at MCC - then
ITASCA), IRIS (at H.P.- used in Open OODB).
• Object-Relational Models: Most Recent Trend. Started
with Informix Universal Server. Exemplified in the latest
versions of Oracle-10i, DB2, and SQL Server etc. systems.
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Schemas versus Instances
• Database Schema: The description of a database is called
database schema which is specified during database design and is
not expected to change frequently. It includes descriptions of the
database structure and the constraints that should hold on the
database.
• Schema Diagram: A diagrammatic display of (some aspects of)
a database schema.
• Schema Construct: We call each object in the schema—such as
STUDENT or COURSE—a schema construct.
• Database Instance: The actual data stored in a database at a
particular moment in time. Also called database state (or
occurrence).
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Database Schema Vs. Database State
• Database State: Refers to the content of a database at a
moment in time.
• Initial Database State: Refers to the database when it is loaded
• Valid State: A state that satisfies the structure and constraints of
the database.
• Distinction
• The database schema changes very infrequently. The database state
changes every time the database is updated.
• Schema is also called intension, whereas state is called extension of
the schema.
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Schema Diagram
