Biological Foundations: Heredity, Prenatal
Development, and Birth
In The Beginning Learning Objectives
What are chromosomes and genes? How
do they carry hereditary information
from one generation to the next?
What are common problems involving
chromosomes and what are their
consequences?
How is a child’s heredity influenced by
the environment in which they grow up?
In The Beginning
Mechanisms of Heredity
Human eggs contain 23 chromosomes selected
from the mother’s 46.
One chromosome is selected from each of the
23 pairs of chromosomes
Human sperm contain 23 chromosomes
selected from the father’s 46.
One chromosome is selected from each of the
23 pairs
In The Beginning (Cont)
The human egg and sperm unite,
resulting in a zygote which contains a
complete set of 46 chromosomes
The first 22 pairs of chromosomes are
called autosomes
The 23rd pair determines the gender of
the child and is called the sex
chromosomes
The 46 chromosomes contain around
30,000 genes
Mechanisms of Heredity
The 23rd Pair of Chromosomes
Males carry XY chromosomes - X from
mother and Y from father
Females carry XX chromosomes - X from
mother and X from father
Mechanisms of Heredity (Cont’d)
The complete set of inherited traits are
called a genotype
How the traits are expressed is called
phenotype and is the combined effects of
genotype and environmental influences
Alleles
Characteristics are determined by the
interaction of genes on the two
chromosomes in a pair
Each chromosome of a pair contains one
parent’s contribution to a specific trait
When the genes are the same they are
called homozygous; when different, they
are called heterozygous
Alleles
(Cont)
• Homozygous Alleles
– When alleles are the same, both parents have
contributed similar genes for a trait
• Heterozygous Alleles
– The parents have contributed different
versions of the trait
Genetic Disorders
Inherited Disorders involve dominant or
recessive alleles for conditions such as
Sickle-Cell Disease, PKU, and
Huntington’s Disease
Extra, missing, or damaged
chromosomes result in abnormalities of
development (e.g., Down Syndrome,
Turner’s Syndrome, and Klinefelter’s
Syndrome)
Heredity, Environment, and
Development
• Behavioral Genetics
– The study of the inheritance of behavioral
and psychological traits
Polygenetic Inheritance
When many genes affect the phenotype of
a trait
Many psychological and behavioral
characteristics are polygenetic and are
impossible to trace to a single gene
Twins
Dizygotic (fraternal) twins come from
two different eggs fertilized by two
different sperm
Monozygotic (identical) twins come from
the union of one egg and one sperm that
splits in two soon after conception
What Twin Studies Can Teach Us
Fraternal twins, while they share much of
the same experience and environment,
have no more genetic similarity than
other siblings
Identical twins share much of the same
experience but are also genetically
identical
Paths From Genes to Behavior
Genes’ impact on behavior depend on the
environment
Heredity and environment interact throughout
development
Genes can influence the kind of environment to
which a person is exposed
Environmental influences typically make
children within a family different
From Conception to Birth Learning
Objectives
What happens to a fertilized egg in the
first two weeks after conception?
When do structures and internal organs
emerge in prenatal development?
When do body systems begin to function
well enough to support life?
Periods of Prenatal Development
Period of the Zygote (Weeks 1-2)
After fertilization, the zygote travels down the
fallopian tube and is implanted in the uterine
wall
Period of the Embryo (Weeks 3-8) Body
structures, internal organs, and the three
layers of the embryo (ectoderm, mesoderm, &
endoderm) develop
The amniotic sac fills with fluid and the
umbilical cord connects the embryo to the
placenta
Periods of Prenatal Development (Cont)
Period of the Fetus (Week 9-Birth)
Week 9- Differentiation of the ovaries and
testes
Week 12- Circulatory system begins to
function
Week 16- Movement felt by mother
Week 32- Age of viability
Conception in the 21st Century
In vitro fertilization
Inserting sperm directly into the
Fallopian tubes
Injecting sperm directly into the egg
Principles of Growth
Cephalocaudal Principle - Growth from
head to spine
Proximodistal Principle - Growth from
areas close to the body to farthest from
body
Influences on Prenatal Development
Learning Objectives
How is prenatal development influenced by a pregnant
woman’s age, her nutrition, and the stress she
experiences while pregnant?
How do diseases, drugs, and environmental hazards
sometimes affect prenatal development?
What general principles affect the ways that prenatal
development can be harmed?
How can prenatal development be monitored? Can
abnormal prenatal development be corrected?
General Risk Factors
Nutrition:
Inadequate maternal nutrition may result in
premature birth and low birth weight
Lack of folic acid may increase risk of spina
bifida
Stress
– Studies show extreme maternal stress is
associated with low birth weight and
premature births
General Risk Factors (Cont)
The mother’s Age:
Older mothers are more likely to have
difficulty getting pregnant, miscarriages,
and stillbirths
Nearly 50% of pregnancies among women in
their 40s and 50s result in miscarriage
Teratogens: Drugs
Known harmful agents include:
Alcohol, aspirin, caffeine, nicotine
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Results from overuse of alcohol during
pregnancy
Children with FAS may have mental
retardation, facial deformities, and heart
defects
Teratogens: Diseases
AIDS, Cytomegalovirus, Genital Herpes,
Rubella (German Measles), Syphilis
Effects include:
– neurological disorders
– deafness
– blindness
– mental disability
– damage to bones, eyes, ears, or heart
Teratogens: Environmental
Hazards
• Lead, Mercury, PCBs, X-Rays
• Effects may include:
– mental disability
– retarded growth
– cerebral palsy
– impaired memory and verbal skill
– retarded growth
– leukemia
How Teratogens Influence Prenatal
Development
The effect of the teratogen depends upon the
genotype of the organism
The impact of teratogens changes over the
course of prenatal development
Each teratogen affects a specific aspect of
prenatal development
The impact of teratogens depends on the dosage
• Damage from teratogens is not always evident
at birth
Prenatal Diagnosis and Treatment
Genetic Counseling -helps to assess the
chances of inherited disorders
Prenatal Diagnosis
– Ultrasound
– Amniocentesis
– Chorionic Villus Sampling
Prenatal Diagnosis and Treatment (Cont)
Fetal Medicine:
Administering medicine to the fetus
Fetal surgery to correct spina bifida and
circulatory problems
Genetic engineering involves replacing
defective genes with synthetic normal genes
Labor and Delivery earning Objectives
What are the different phases of labor and
delivery?
What are “natural” ways of coping with the
pain of childbirth? Is childbirth at home safe?
What adjustments do parents face after a
baby’s birth?
What are some complications that can occur
during birth?
What contributes to infant mortality in the
developed and least developed countries?
Stages of Labor
Stage 1 lasts 12-24 hours for the first
birth and includes contractions and the
enlargement of the cervix to
approximately 10 centimeters
Stage 2 includes the actual birth of the
baby and lasts about an hour
Stage 3 lasts a few minutes and involves
expelling of the placenta
Approaches to Childbirth
Childbirth Classes:
Explains what happens during pregnancy
and delivery
Teaches techniques to manage the pain of
childbirth. The emphasis is on natural
methods, relaxation, and coaching
Studies show that mothers who attend
childbirth classes typically use less
medication
Birthing Alternatives
Home Births:
Less Expensive
Parents have more control over the
conditions
Birth problems are no more common at
home than at the hospital when pregnancy
has been problem-free
Birthing Centers
More home-like than hospitals, but in a
clinic setting independent of hospitals
Labor and Delivery: Birth Complications
Hypoxia, or inadequate blood and oxygen to baby
Complications may result in cesarean section (C-
section)
Births before the 36th week are called premature or
preterm
Babies weighing less than 5.5 pounds have low birth
weight
Babies weighing less than 3.3 pounds have very low
birth weight
Below 2.2 pounds is called extremely low birth weight
Infant Mortality
Infant Mortality is the number of infants out of
1,000 births that die before the age of 1 year
U.S. mortality rate is just under 1%, or 7 of
1000
15 industrialized nations have lower infant
mortality than U.S
Possible factors include low birth weight
resulting from a lack of free or inexpensive
prenatal care and fewer paid leave of absences
for pregnant women
The End
