Plasma
• Plasma is a straw-colored liquid consisting of water and dissolved
solutes
• There are three types of proteins are albumins, globulins, and
fibrinogen.
1. Albumins account for most of the plasma proteins and are the smallest
in size
2. Globulins are grouped into three subtypes: alpha globulins, beta
globulins, and gamma globulins.
• The alpha and beta globulins function in transporting lipids and fat-
soluble vitamins.
• Gamma globulins are antibodies produced by lymphocytes and function
in immunity.
3. Fibrinogen is an important clotting factor produced by the liver. During
the process of clot formation fibrinogen is converted into insoluble threads
of fibrin.
• Thus, the fluid from clotted blood, called serum, does not contain
fibrinogen but is otherwise identical to plasma.
• Anemia refers to any condition in which there is an abnormally low
hemoglobin concentration and/or red blood cell count.
• The most common type is iron-deficiency anemia caused by a deficiency
of iron, which is an essential component of the hemoglobin molecule.
• In pernicious anemia there is an inadequate amount of vitamin B12,
which is needed for red blood cell production. This is usually due to
atrophy of the glandular mucosa of the stomach, which normally
secretes a protein called intrinsic factor. In the absence of intrinsic
factor, the vitamin B12 obtained in the diet cannot be absorbed by
intestinal cells.
• Aplastic anemia is anemia due to destruction of the bone marrow,
which may be caused by chemicals (including benzene and arsenic) or by
radiation.
Blood Clotting
Breakage of the endothelial lining of a vessel
exposes collagen proteins from the
subendothelial connective tissue to the blood.
This initiates three hemostatic mechanisms:
1. Vasoconstriction
2. the formation of a platelet plug
3. the production of a web of fibrin proteins that
penetrates and surrounds the platelet plug.
• In the intact blood vessel , platelets are repelled from
each other and from the endothelium of blood vessels.
• The endothelium covers connective tissue collagen
and other proteins that are capable of activating
platelets to begin clot formation.
• In addition, the endothelial cells secrete prostacyclin
(PGI2 )and nitric oxide (NO), which act as vasodilators
and act on the platelets to inhibit platelet aggregation.
• Plasma membrane of endothelial cells contains an
enzyme known as CD39, which has its active site facing
the blood. The CD39 enzyme breaks down ADP in the
blood to AMP and P i (ADP is released by activated
platelets and promotes platelet aggregation).
• When a blood vessel is injured and the endothelium is broken,
glycoproteins in the platelet’s plasma membrane are now able to bind
to the exposed collagen fibers.
• Platelets contain secretory granules. when platelets stick to collagen,
they degranulate. These products include adenosine diphosphate (ADP),
serotonin, and a prostaglandin called thromboxane A2. This event is
known as the platelet release reaction.
• The ADP and thromboxane A2 released from activated platelets recruits
new platelets to the vicinity and makes them “sticky,” so that they
adhere to those stuck on the collagen .
• The second layer of platelets, in turn, undergoes a platelet release
reaction, and the ADP and thromboxane A 2 that are secreted cause
additional platelets to aggregate at the site of the injury. This produces a
platelet plug in the damaged vessel.
• The activated platelets also help to activate plasma clotting factors,
leading to the conversion of a soluble plasma protein known as
fibrinogen into an insoluble fibrous protein, fibrin.
• There are binding sites on the platelet’s plasma membrane for
fibrinogen and fibrin, so that these proteins help join platelets together
Clotting Factors: Formation of Fibrin
• The conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin may occur
via either of two pathways.
• Blood left in a test tube will clot without the
addition of any external chemicals; the pathway
that produces this clot is thus called the intrinsic
pathway.
• Damaged tissues, however, release a chemical that
initiates a “shortcut” to the formation of fibrin.
Because this chemical is not part of blood, the
shorter pathway is called the extrinsic pathway.
