Principles of Flight

MAHYA ZADABDOLAH
 MODULE PLAN

 BASIC TERMINOLOGY

 FUSALAGE

 CONTROL SURFACE

 LIFT

 DRAG
BASIC TERMINOLOGY
 NEWTON’S LAWS
Newton’s 1st Law
States that a body will continue in a state of rest, or in uniform motion in a straight line, unless acted
on by an external force (i.e. it has inertia).

Newton’s 2nd Law

States that a body at rest or in uniform motion will, when acted on by an external force, accelerate in
the direction of the force. The magnitude of the acceleration for any given mass is directly
proportional to the size of the force applied (i.e. when a force of 1 N is applied to a mass of 1 kg, it
will accelerate at 1 m/s2 ).
Force = Mass x Acceleration

Newton’s 3rd Law.

States that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
PHYSICAL
STATE OF
MATTER
 SOLID

 LIQUID

 GAS
Atmosphere:

The Earth’s atmosphere is the layer of air that surrounds the planet .

The Composition of Air:

Air is a mixture of gases the main components of which are shown in Table. Water vapour in varying quantities is
found in the atmosphere up to a height of approximately
30 000 ft.
The amount in any given air mass is dependent on the air temperature and the passage of the air mass in relationship
to large areas of water.
The higher the air temperature the greater the amount of water vapour it can hold.
Density (𝝆)
PRESSURE (P)

INCREASE LIFT AND DRAG

PRESSURE (P)
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒/𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑃 = 𝐹/A

𝑃 = 𝐹/A
P = N/M2
AIR PRESSURE

Static Pressure (PS)

When air is stationary it exerts pressure equally in all directions.

Dynamic Pressure (PD)

when relative movement exists between the surface and the airflow
AIR PRESSURE
Total Pressure (PT)

Total Pressure = Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure

The sum of both

the static and
dynamic pressures.
 ISA CONDITION

International Standard Atmosphere (ISA):

standard atmosphere represents the mean or average properties of the atmosphere.

At Mean Sea Level(MSL):

 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡 𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 15 ℃
 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 1013.25 hpa
 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖 𝑡 𝑦 = 1.225 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡 𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡 𝑒 𝑖 𝑠 2℃ PER 1000 𝑓𝑡
REVIEW
Altitude AS AN ALT INCREASE
FORCE (F)
THRUST LIFT

= =
Forces acting on an Aeroplane

DRAG WEIGHT
UNACCELERATED AND LEVEL
FLIGHT

L=W
T=D

CP

CG
 Forces acting on an Aeroplane

Weight (W):
An aeroplane, like all bodies, has mass. With the aircraft stationary on the ground it has only the force due
to the acceleration of gravity acting upon it. This force, its WEIGHT, acts vertically downward at all times.

LIFT :
Before an aeroplane can leave the ground and fly, the force of weight must be balanced by a force which acts
upwards. This force is called LIFT. The lift force must be increased until it is the same as the aeroplane’s
weight.
 Forces acting on an Aeroplane

THRUST :
To generate a lift force, the aeroplane must be propelled forward through the air
by a force called THRUST, provided by the engine(s).

DRAG :
From the very moment the aeroplane begins to move, air resists its forward
motion with a force called DRAG.
Components OF AN
AIRCRAFT
 Components OF AN AIRCRAFT

 The primary requirements of an aircraft are as follows:

 a wing to generate a lift force;

 a fuselage to house the payload (PASSENGERS,BAGGAGE AND CARGO)
 tail surfaces to add stability;
 control surfaces to change the direction of flight; and
LATER 
engines to make it go forward.
PRIMARY
WING TIP

WING TIP
Wing Section
An airfoil

A body so shaped as to
produce aerodynamic
reaction normal to the
direction of its motion
through the air without
excessive drag .
 AIRFOIL
Camber:
The curvature of the profile view of an aerofoil is its camber

Chord Line:
A straight imaginary straight line drawn between the leading and trailing edges
of an aerofoil.

Chord: The distance between the leading and trailing edges measured along the
chord line
 AIRFOIL
Mean Line or Camber Line:
A line joining the leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil, equidistant from the
upper and lower surfaces.
CG
Center of gravity

the point about which an PITCH

AXIS
aircraft would balance if it
were possible to suspend it at
that point.
 WING

Sweep Angle
The angle between the leading edge of an aerofoil and
the lateral axis (LATER)of an aeroplane is the sweep
angle .

Wingspan
The shortest distance measured between the wing tips
of an aeroplane is its wingspan . .
 Wing Position

The wings may be inclined above or below the

horizontal.

Dihedral:
is the term for wing inclination above the
horizontal.

Anhedral :
is the term for inclination below the horizontal.
Wing Planform
Wing Planform
 Aeroplane Axis and Planes of Rotation

The Longitudinal or Roll Axis

The horizontal straight line joining the most forward point of the
fuselage of the aeroplane.
 Aeroplane Axis and Planes of Rotation

The Lateral or Pitch Axis

The lateral axis is a horizontal straight line passing from one
side of the aeroplane to the other, through the CG, at right
angles to the longitudinal axis.
 Aeroplane Axis and Planes of Rotation

The Normal or Yaw Axis

The normal axis of an aeroplane is the vertical straight line passing

through the CG.
Flight control surfaces :
Aircraft flight control surfaces are
aerodynamic devices allowing a pilot to
adjust and control the aircraft's flight
attitude .
Primary Control Surface
The primary control surfaces are the
elevators, ailerons, and rudder .
Elevator for control in pitch about the
lateral axis (longitudinal control) .
Rudder for control in yaw about the
normal axis (directional control) .
Ailerons for control in roll about the
longitudinal axis (lateral control) .
Elevator
Rudder
Ailerons
Elevator

 Elevator The primary effect of elevators is to provide pitch control about

the lateral axis.
 Pushing the control column forward causes the elevator to move downward.
This produces an aerodynamic force acting on the tailplane in an upward
direction causing the aircraft to pitch nose-down. Pulling the control column
rearward has the reverse effect, and causes the aircraft to pitch nose-up.
ELEVATOR
Rudder

 The primary effect of the rudder is to provide yaw control

about the normal axis .
 Moving the left rudder pedal forward this produces an
aerodynamic force on the fin and the aircraft yaws to the left.
Moving the right rudder pedal forward reverses the action, and
the aircraft yaws to the right.
Rudder

The necessary reason to turn = Change the direction of lift

Ailerons

 The primary effect of ailerons is to provide roll control about

the longitudinal axis. Moving the control column to the right
deflects the right aileron upward and the left aileron
downward. This locally alters the shape of the wing where the
ailerons are attached. In flight, this produces a downward
aerodynamic force on the right wing and an upward
aerodynamic force on the left wing, causing the aircraft to roll
to the right. Moving the control column to the left causes the
reverse effect.
AILERONS

The necessary reason to turn = Change the direction of lift

Control on the Ground

 Directional control on the ground is achieved by use of the rudder,

nosewheel steering (which may be connected to the rudder pedals), and
brakes . Airflow over the rudder increases its effectiveness .
LIFT
Lift :
The aerodynamic force which acts at 90° to the Relative Airflow.

.
Relative Airflow, (Relative Wind), (Free Stream Flow)

The direction of airflow produced by the aircraft moving through the air. The
relative airflow flows in a direction parallel and opposite to the direction of flight.
Therefore, the actual flight path of the aircraft determines the direction of the
relative airflow. Also, air in a region where pressure, temperature and relative
velocity are unaffected by the passage of the aircraft through it.
 LIFT = Perpendicular to the RW

RELATIVE
WIND
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
Bernoulli’s Theorem
Venturi tube
Total Pressure = Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure

STATIC
PRESSURE

Dynamic Pressure
LIFT

 Lift is defined as the force generated normal (at 90°) to the relative airflow
or flight path of the aircraft. • The aerodynamic force of lift results from the
pressure differential between the top and Bottom surfaces of the wing. This
lift force can be defined by the following equation:
LIFT

 The aerodynamic forces of both lift and drag depend on the

combined effect of many variables. The important factors being:
 Airstream velocity (V) Dynamic Pressure ( ½ ρ V2)
 Air density (ρ)
 Shape or profile of the surface Pressure Distribution (CL or CD)
Angle of attack
 Surface area (S)
 Condition of the surface
CL MAX
Lift coefficient increases with
angle of attack up to a
maximum (𝑪𝑳𝑴𝑨𝑿), which
corresponds to the Critical
angle of attack.
Continuing to increase the
angle of attack beyond this
point makes it impossible for
the airflow to maintain its
previous smooth flow over the
contour of the upper surface,
and lift will reduce. This
phenomena, stall, will be
discussed in detail later
DRAG
DRAG
 DRAG Creat as the airplane starts to move

Types Of Drag
Total Drag is sub-divided into two main types:
INREASE WITH
SPEED PARASITE DRAG - independent of lift generation

INDUCED DRAG - the result of lift generation.

Parasite drag is further sub-divided into:

• Skin Friction Drag
• Form Drag, and
• Interference Drag

NOTE: Skin Friction and Form Drag are together known as

PROFILE DRAG.
Induced Drag

Because induced drag is a component of the lift force, the greater the lift, the greater
will be the induced drag. Lift must be equal to weight in level flight so induced drag
will depend on the weight of the aircraft. Induced drag will be greater at higher
aircraft weights.
DRAG

If an aircraft were flying at zero lift angle of attack, the only drag
present would be parasite drag.

Parasite drag is made-up of ‘Skin Friction', 'Form’ and

‘Interference’ drag.
DRAG
 DRAG

Skin Friction Drag

The increased rate of change in velocity at
the surface in the turbulent flow will give more
skin friction than the laminar flow .

.
 DRAG

Form Drag
 DRAG

Interference Drag
 DRAG

Induced Drag

Vortices
CREATED
WHEN THE
WING
PRODUCES
LIFT
 Load Factor

Certain manoeuvres require the lift force to be greater than the aircraft weight.
The relationship of lift to weight is known as the ‘ Load Factor’ (or ‘g’). For example, lift is
greater than weight during a steady turn so induced drag will be higher during a steady turn
than in straight and level flight. Therefore, induced drag also increases as the Load Factor
increases. Induced drag will increase in proportion to the square of the lift force.

Load Factor = L / W
 Methods of Reducing Induced Drag :

➢ Washout
means constructing the wing with a small amount of twist from root to tip, so that the inboard wing section is at a
higher angle of incidence, and hence a greater angle of attack, compared to the wing tip . This ensures that the inner
part of the wing generates most of the lift, thus minimising the leakage of airflow around the wing tips . This
reduces the size of the wing tip vortex and reduces the total amount of induced drag
➢ Washout
 DEAR CABIN CREW
THANKS AND GOOD LUCK

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