WAVE OPTICS

Wave is a disturbance that propagates through space and time

OPTICS
Geometrical optics or ray optics physical optics or wave optics

Geometrical optics
describes light propagation in terms of "rays". REFLECTION OF LIGHT REFRACTION OF LIGHT

physical optics
deals with the nature and properties of light INTERFERENCE Diffraction Polarization

INTERFERENCE

CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

INTERFERENCE DUE TO THIN FILMS

Newton's rings

Microscope

Reflecting slide, A

Light source

Lens, L Glass slide, B Centre line, C Figure 1: Apparatus

Single Slit

Single Slit

Double Slit

Double Slit

Difraction gratting

 A wave is just that. It's one of a group of ""vibrations" that are moving from a point of origin across or through a medium of transmission. The wave can be a two-dimensional (2D) or three-dimension entity

 The waves on a pond radiate from the point of origin outward in all directions across the surface of the (2D) surface of the pond.

 In the case of sound, energy travels out in all directions through the (3D) air. The light does, too. But that light is not mechanical energy - its electromagnetic energy

 The ray more like a "line" or "column" of energy. And mechanical energy doesn't permit us to do a "ray" or "line" of energy because it cannot be confined very well.

 The beam can be directed, but it still scatters. But the beam of a flashlight that has a nice parabolic reflector mostly goes in one direction. It's a "ray of light" for all practical purposes

 Most of the beam's energy is carried in the one direction. A search light on a helicopter used at a "grand opening" works in a similar manner. And it's the same with x-rays.

Interferometer
Optics. a device that separates a beam of light into two ray beams, usually by means of reflection, and that brings the rays together to produce interference, used to measure wavelength, index of refraction, and astronomical distances.

Double crucible technique

A container of metal or refractory material employed for heating substances to high temperatures Metallurgy. a hollow area at the bottom of a furnace in which the metal collects.

Statistics
Is the science of making effective use of numerical data relating to groups of individuals or experiments.
It deals with all aspects of this, including not only the collection, analysis and interpretation of such data, but also the planning of the collection of data, in terms of the design of surveys and experiments.[1]

Mechanics
Is the branch of physics concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effect of the bodies on their environment.

What is the Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution?

All the molecules of a particular chemical, compound or element have the same mass, so their kinetic energy is only dependent on the speed of the particles.
In any particular mixture of moving molecules, the speed will vary a great deal, from very slow particles (low energy) to very fast particles (high energy). Most of the particles however will be moving at a speed very close to the average. The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution shows how the speeds (and hence the energies) of a mixture of moving particles varies at a particular temperature.

The first quantum theory: Max Planck and black body radiation

 Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation emitted from the surface of an object which is due to the object's temperature. If an object is heated up sufficiently, it will start to emit light at the red end of the spectrumit is "red hot". Heating it up further will cause the colour to change, as light at shorter wavelengths (higher frequencies) begins to be emitted. It turns out that a perfect emitter is also a perfect absorber. When it is cold, such an object will look perfectly black, as it will emit practically no visible light, but it will absorb all the light that falls on it. Consequently, an ideal thermal emitter is known as a black body, and the radiation it emits is also called black body radiation.

Wave-particle duality

 Electromagnetism is the physics of the electromagnetic field, a field that exerts a force on charged particles and is reciprocally affected by the presence and motion of such particles. A changing magnetic field produces an electric field (this is the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, the basis of operation for electrical generators, induction motors, and transformers). Similarly, a changing electric field generates a magnetic field. The magnetic field is produced by the motion of electric charges, i.e., electric current. The magnetic field causes the magnetic force associated with magnets.

Gauss's law
The electric flux through any closed surface is proportional to the enclosed electric charge.

Gauss's law for magnetism

It states that the magnetic field B has divergence equal to zero,

Faraday's law
The induced electromotive force or EMF in any closed circuit is equal to the time rate of change of the magnetic flux through the circuit. The EMF generated is proportional to the rate at which flux is linked

Ampere's Law
Ampere's Law states that for any closed loop path, the sum of the length elements times the magnetic field in the direction of the length element is equal to the permeability times the electric current enclosed in the loop.

Maxwell's equations
Maxwell's equations are a set of four partial differential equations that relate the electric and magnetic fields to their sources, charge density and current density. These equations can be combined to show that light is an electromagnetic wave. Individually, the equations are known as Gauss's law, Gauss's law for magnetism, Faraday's law of induction, and Ampre's law with Maxwell's correction. The set of equations is named after James Clerk Maxwell.

 Maxwells four equations describe the electric and magnetic fields arising from varying distributions of electric charges and currents, and how those fields change in time. The equations were the mathematical distillation of decades of experimental observations of the electric and magnetic effects of charges and currents

 Maxwell formulated equations representing the observations of Gauss, Faraday, and Ampere, in terms of twenty equations and twenty variables. He also noticed that there was a logical inconsistency in Amperes law in that it did not give mathematically consistent results in circuits that contained capacitors. Maxwell determined that there was a missing term and worked out what it should be; this is now known as displacement current and represented the final piece in the laws of electricity and magnetism. Maxwells equations were later simplified into four differential equations by Heaviside using vectors, forming the four laws known collectively today as Maxwells equations [1]. 7

 Maxwell completed the theory of electricity and magnetism. Remarkably, using only the four equations known as Maxwells equations, it is possible to explain all known electromagnetic phenomena on the macroscopic scale. The equations helped Hertz discover and prove the existence of the radio wave; they are used frequently when designing anything that deals with electricity and magnetism, such as electronic motors and electromagnets; they have even led to research into quantum dynamics.

 Maxwells four equations describe the electric and magnetic fields arising from varying distributions of electric charges and currents, and how those fields change in time. The equations were the mathematical distillation of decades of experimental observations of the electric and magnetic effects of charges and currents

Permeability
In electromagnetism, permeability is the degree of magnetization that a material obtains in response to an applied magnetic field. The reciprocal of magnetic permeability is magnetic reluctivity.

Laser Applications
Medical applications Welding and Cutting Garment industry Laser nuclear fusion Communication Laser printing CDs and optical discs Spectroscopy Heat treatment Barcode scanners Laser cooling

Applications of optical fiber

telecommunications companies to transmit telephone signals Internet communication, and cable television signals biomedical industry Intelligent transportation systems, such as smart highways with intelligent traffic lights, automated tollbooths, and changeable message signs, also use fiber-optic-based telemetry systems.

Thermistor
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies with temperature. The word is a portmanteau of thermal and resistor.

 Thermistors are thermally sensitive resistors whose prime function is to exhibit a large, predictable and precise change in electrical resistance when subjected to a corresponding change in body temperature. Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistors exhibit a decrease in electrical resistance when subjected to an increase in body temperature and Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) thermistors exhibit an increase in electrical resistance when subjected to an increase in body temperature.

 The resistance of a semiconductor thermistor decreases with increase of temperature. As temperature rises, the resistance of the material decreases so that the current passing through a thermistor increases rapidly. They are used to electronically detect changes in temperature (electrical thermometers), as in fire alarms and thermostats. They also are used in lamp filaments and electric motors to stop large currents flowing through them when they are initially turned on.