Electronic Circuit Design 2A

(ECDS201)
Bachelor of Engineering Technology
Department of Electronic & Computer Engineering

Compiled by
Mr MM Molefe
Module
Outlines
 Safety
 Fundamentals of Engineering Design
 Analogue Circuits
 Other Devices
 Logic Circuits
 PCB Design & Simulation
 Documenting & Presentation
 Safety
(Safety issues, ESD Protection, Electronic components and equipment,
Measurement techniques, standards and calibration)
• Safety is the state of being “safe” or the condition of
being protected from harm or other danger.
• It can also refer to the control of recognized hazards
in order to achieve an acceptable level of risk.
• It provides freedom from hazards, risks, and accidents
that could cause injury, damage, loss of material or
property, or even death.
Benefits of Safety:
• Prevent workplace injuries and illnesses
• Improve compliance with laws and regulations
• Reduce costs, including significant reductions in
workers' compensation premiums
• Engage workers
• Enhance their social responsibility goals
• Increase productivity and enhance overall business
operations
Ways of Promoting Safety
Some ways to promote safety in our daily lives, as this requires a collective effort from
individuals, communities, and organizations :
• Education: This is a key factor in promoting safety. It can help people understand the
risks and the preventive measures to minimize those risks. Examples: educating drivers
on safe driving practices and providing workplace safety training can reduce the
number of accidents and injuries.
• Risk Assessment: Conducting regular risk assessments can help identify potential
hazards and prevent accidents before they occur. For example: workplace safety
inspections can identify unsafe equipment, faulty wiring, and other hazards that may
cause injuries.
• Safe Behaviour: Practicing safe behaviour is an essential aspect of promoting safety.
Examples include wearing protective gear, following safety guidelines, wearing a helmet
when riding a bike or using a seatbelt in a car can reduce the risk of injuries and avoid
risky behaviour.
• Emergency Preparedness: Being prepared for emergencies can minimize the risks and
mitigate the damage. Examples include having an emergency plan in place, knowing the
emergency exits, having the necessary tools and supplies, having a first aid kit, a fire
extinguisher, and an emergency contact list can help in case of accidents or disasters.
• Workstation Ergonomics: Provide ergonomic workstations to prevent repetitive stress
injuries and musculoskeletal disorders. E.g. ensure that chairs, desks, and computer
monitors are adjustable and that employees take regular breaks to stretch and move.
Types of Safety and their precautions (to be promoted)
Safety can be categorized into different types; some common types are:
• Physical Safety: This refers to protection from physical harm, such as
accidents, injuries, and violence. This can be promoted through various
measures such as wearing protective gear, following safety guidelines, and
maintaining a safe environment.
• Emotional Safety: This type of safety refers to creating an environment where
individuals feel secure and free from emotional harm, such as bullying,
harassment, and discrimination in the workplace or social settings. It can be
promoted by fostering a supportive and respectful environment, where
individuals are free to express themselves without fear of judgment or
criticism.
• Digital Safety: This refers to protection from online threats such as
cyberbullying, identity theft, and hacking. This type can be promoted by
practicing safe online behaviour, such as using strong passwords, avoiding
suspicious links, and limiting personal information sharing.
• Environmental Safety: This refers to protection from environmental hazards
such as pollution, natural disasters, and climate change. It can be promoted
by taking proactive measures to reduce carbon emissions, conserve natural
resources, and promote sustainable practices.
• Workplace safety: employers have a responsibility to provide a safe working
environment for their employees. Its promotion includes training on how to
operate machinery, proper use of equipment, providing personal protective
equipment, and establishing emergency procedures. It is important to identify
potential hazards in the workplace and take appropriate steps to mitigate those
risks.
• Mental safety refers to the prevention of mental harm or distress, including
mental illness, anxiety, depression, and other emotional disorders. Healthy habits
are promoted by regular exercise, a healthy diet, and adequate sleep. It also
involves seeking help when needed, such as therapy or counselling, and avoiding
exposure to trauma or negative stimuli.
• Transportation or road safety is essential for preventing accidents and fatalities
on the road. This can be promoted by obeying traffic laws, wearing seatbelts,
avoiding distracted driving, and maintaining a safe speed. Road safety is a critical
concern for all road users, including drivers, pedestrians, and cyclists.
• Fire safety involves taking steps to prevent fires and minimize the damage caused
by fires. Its promotions are installing smoke detectors, maintaining fire
extinguishers, and developing evacuation plans in the event of a fire.
• Water safety is essential for preventing drowning and other water-related
accidents. Its promotion includes practicing safe swimming habits, wearing life
jackets, and avoiding risky behaviour in or near the water.
General Safety Tips
• Basic safety rules
• Be aware of your surroundings
• Extension cords are for temporary use only!
• Use the right type of eye and face protection
• Protect your feet
• Fill gas cans safely (if applicable)
• Heat induced illness prevention
• Shelf installation safety
• Avoiding slips, trips and falls
Basic Safety Rules (Toolbox talk)
• Stay Alert - and stay alive: The more awake a worker is, the less likely he or she is to get hurt. If you
are unsure how to operate equipment or perform a task, ask your supervisor. Don't guess and muddle
through. Make sure you know in advance the correct, safe way to do it.
• Wear The Right Clothes or Proper Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) for the task - work
clothes or PPE required should fit properly: Anything that can catch in machinery or trip you up is
hazardous. Wear protective clothing and equipment as required.
• Use The Right Tools - if you need a hammer, get a hammer. It may be handier to use a pair of pliers,
wrench or screwdriver, rather than to get injured.
• Learn How To Lift - Lifting takes more than muscle; it is an art. Don't try to show how strong you
are; you may end up in a hospital. Get help to handle anything that is too heavy for you.
• Don't Be A Prankster - practical jokes and horseplay can be dangerous, especially around heavy
machinery. If you feel the urge to play, resist it until after work.
• Be Tidy - Good housekeeping reduces hazards in the workplace or your home. Always put away
tools when they are not in use. Keep the floors clean, pick up scraps and wipe up spills. A slip or trip
can be fatal.
• Reporting Is Important - Never fail to report accidents, defective equipment and unsafe conditions.
• Get First Aid Immediately - if you're hurt - even if it seems minor. Neglect of an injury may lead to
serious infection, weeks of lost time, and possibly permanent injury.
• Back Your Safety Program - If you have an idea that you believe will reduce accidents, tell your
supervisor about it. Set an example by obeying safety rules. Cooperate with your safety committee.
• Never Take A Chance - Next to absolute carelessness, shortcuts are probably the biggest killer of all.
To save a minute or two, you may lose a life. Whatever you are doing, if you are not doing it safely,
you are not doing it right!
Safety First: Being safe at work is very important and it’s a required element in the
Accreditation of any industry. Safety is also a responsibility shared by both employer
and employee. There is nothing as zero risk, because no physical item has a zero-failure rate, no human being makes zero errors,
and no piece of software design can foresee every operational possibility.

 Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) Act:

• Is designed to provide for the health, safety and welfare of the employees and other
people at work.
• It’s designed in connection with the use of plant and machinery for protection against
hazards that may arise during/ after the work activities to ensure safety of the public.
• It also governs, regulates and controls the health and safety of all industries or
organizations in South Africa.
 The OHS Act:
• It gives a general overview of how to make workplaces safe and healthy.
• It outlines the legal responsibilities/ duties of the employer and business
owner.
 The OHS regulations set out the standards (rules, codes, etc.) that dictate how
the provisions of the Act are applied, (i.e. requirement to be met by the
employer for specific hazards and risks, such as machinery, manual handling etc.)
 The need for OHS Act is to prevent any occurring accidents that may cause any
injury or medical conditions of the workers in the workplace.
Significance of the OHSA
• It provides a framework for ensuring the health and safety of workers in
the workplace.
• It helps to promote a culture of safety in the workplace. By requiring
employers to provide a safe work environment, the act encourages
employers to take proactive measures to identify and address potential
hazards.
• It has contributed to a significant reduction in injuries and fatalities in the
workplace.
• It helps to ensure that workers have a voice in workplace safety. The act
allows workers to file complaints with OSHA if they believe their workplace
is unsafe. This provides workers with a mechanism to voice their concerns
and helps to ensure that employers are held accountable for providing a
safe work environment.
• It has a positive impact on the overall economy. By promoting workplace
safety, the act has helped to reduce healthcare costs and increase
productivity. This has resulted in a more efficient and effective workforce,
which benefits both employers and employees.
General Duties of Employers to their Employees
Every employers shall provide & maintain as far as is reasonably practicable, a working
environment that is safe and without risk to the health of his employees.
The responsibility of the employer in a workplace according to OHS Act are to:
• Provide and maintain a safe, healthy environment without risk to the employees.
• Take steps to eliminate or reduce any hazard before resorting to the use of PPE.
• Ensure production, processing, use, handling, storage or transport of substances or equipment is safe;
• Identify the hazards performed in the workplace and implement measures to protect the health and
safety of employees;
• Provide information, training and supervision as required to ensure employees are healthy and safe
in the workplace.
• Don’t let any employee to do any work or operate any machinery unless the safety measures are
taken;
• Take all necessary measures to ensure the requirements of the OHS Act are complied with by every
person in his/her employment or on premises under his/her control where plant or machinery is used;
• Enforce all measures necessary to ensure health and safety;
• Ensure work is performed and machinery is used under the general supervision of a person trained to
understand the hazards associated with it and who have the authority to ensure that precautionary
measures taken by the employer are implemented;
• Ensure all employees are informed regarding the scope of their authority.
General duties of the employees at work, according to the OHS Act in the
workplace (things that the employee must do):
• Take care of their own health and safety, as well as of other people who may be
affected by their actions or negligence to act.
• Co-operate with the employer where the Act imposes a duty or requirements on
the worker.
• Give information to an inspector from the Department of Labour if he or she
should require it.
• Carry out any lawful instruction which the employer or authorized person
prescribes regarding health and safety.
• Comply with the rules and procedures that the employer gives him/her.
• Wear the prescribed safety clothing or use the prescribed safety equipment where
it is required.
• Report unsafe or unhealthy conditions to the employer or health and safety
representative as soon as possible.
• If employee is involved in an incident that may influence his or her health or cause
an injury, the incident must be reported to the employer, or any authorized person
by the employer or the health and safety representative as soon as possible, but
no later than by the end of the shift.
Health and safety representatives within the workplace are:
• The full-time workers nominated or elected and designated in writing by the
employer.
• The person who is familiar with the circumstances and conditions at that part of
the workplace for which they are designated.
• Their duties is to provide rapid response to any incidents that threaten lives,
property and environment in the workplace.

A Safety inspection in the workplace is a formalized and properly documented

procedure to identify hazards in the workplace. Inspection can only be carried out
by a Safety Specialist. It involves a checklist, which helps inspectors to thoroughly
assess each area or potential hazard and pinpoint specific instances that may cause
safety issues.
Types of Safety Inspection
• Planned (formal) inspections are done by using a written checklist, carried out by a team
at a regular intervals in the workplace.
• Unplanned (informal/ on the spot) inspections done by management, supervisors or
representatives by observing the area for unsafe acts and conditions.
• Specialized inspections are conducted by specialists (for example on electrical equipment,
mechanical or ventilation systems)
• Regulatory inspection is done as required by OHS regulations
Purpose of Workplace Inspection:
Is to provide an employer with information on various
activities, the current method of operation and the hazards
linked to it.

Inspection Process involves the following:

• Taking hazard control assessment
• Identifying (new) hazards
• Identifying safety deficiencies
• Identifying workers health or safety concerns
• Developing corrective actions
• Promoting the health, safety and proper work practices
 Hazard is any agent that can cause harm or damage to humans, property, or the
environment.
Types of hazards
• Physical – this type of hazard can be caused by environmental factors that can harm an
employee with or without contact: radiation, extreme heat or cold, vibration, noise, falls, fire,
objects in walkways, unsafe or misused machinery
• Biological – caused by employees who works with other people, animals or infectious
materials. This includes blood, fungi, mold, viruses, bacteria, insects, animal droppings etc.
• Chemical – can be caused by exposure to chemicals in liquids, vapours, gases and fumes,
some might not be immediately identifiable in the workplace. Such as, cleaning products,
glues, paint, pesticides, petroleum products, heavy metals like lead mercury, welding fumes
etc.
• Ergonomic – caused by physical factors that harms the musculoskeletal system within the
environment and difficult to spot because the problems build up over time, such as poor
workplace/task design, poor design of equipment, manual handling, repetitive (awkward)
movement, poor lighting, uncomfortable workstation height or poor body positioning.
• Psychosocial or psychological – by those that can have an adverse effect on an employee
wellbeing or mental health, such as: work-related stress, violence, overwork, bullying, sexual
harassment etc.
• General workplace or safety hazards – are unsafe working conditions. It includes spills or
trips such as ice, frayed carpet or cables (electrical hazards), walkways blocked by boxes or
cords, confined spaces, machinery with moving parts.
Risk is the probability that exposure to a hazard will lead to a negative
consequence. Hazard poses no risk if there is no exposure to it.
Types of Risks
Various types of risks that individuals and organizations face are:
1. Financial Risks: Financial risks refer to the potential losses that individuals or
organizations face due to changes in the financial markets, such as interest rate
fluctuations, currency exchange rate changes, and market volatility.
2. Operational Risks: Operational risks refer to the risks associated with the day-
to-day operations of a business, such as the risk of equipment failure, supply
chain disruptions, and human error.
3. Strategic Risks: Strategic risks refer to the risks associated with the long-term
goals and objectives of a business, such as changes in the competitive landscape
or shifts in consumer preferences.
4. Reputational Risks: Reputational risks refer to the risks associated with the
perception of an individual or organization, such as negative publicity or a loss
of trust.
5. Legal Risks: Legal risks refer to the potential losses that individuals or
organizations face due to legal proceedings, such as lawsuits or regulatory fines.
Several factors that contribute to risk, are:
1.Uncertainty: Risk is often associated with uncertainty, as
it is impossible to predict with certainty the outcome of
any decision or action.
2.Complexity: Complex systems, processes, and
environments are often associated with higher levels of
risk, as they are more difficult to manage and control.
3.Volatility: Risk is often higher in volatile environments,
such as financial markets or political situations.
4.Interconnectedness: Interconnected systems and
processes can create additional risk, as a failure in one area
can have ripple effects on other areas.
5.Human Factors: Human factors, such as human error or
malicious behaviour, can also contribute to risk.
Risk Management Strategies: It involves identifying potential risks, assessing their
likelihood and impact, and implementing strategies to mitigate or minimize the risk.
Effective risk management requires a comprehensive approach that involves:
1. Risk Assessment: The first step in managing risk is to identify potential risks and
assess their likelihood and impact. This involves analyzing data and gathering
input from stakeholders to understand the potential risks and their potential impact
on the organization.
2. Risk Mitigation: Once potential risks have been identified and assessed, the next
step is to implement strategies to mitigate or minimize the risk. This can involve
implementing new processes, procedures, or controls to reduce the likelihood or
impact of the risk.
3. Risk Transfer: Risk transfer involves transferring the potential financial impact of
a risk to another party, such as an insurance company. This can help to reduce the
financial impact of a risk if it occurs.
4. Risk Avoidance: Risk avoidance involves avoiding activities or decisions that are
associated with high levels of risk. This can be an effective strategy for managing
risk, but it can also limit opportunities for growth and innovation.
5. Risk Acceptance: Risk acceptance involves accepting the potential impact of a
risk and taking measures to minimize its impact if it occurs. This can be an
effective strategy for managing risks that are associated with low likelihood or low
impact.
Assessment of risk for each type hazard can be estimated in terms of:
• Injury severity
• Probability of hazardous event
Risk assessment estimated by injury severity:
• Severe: Death or serious, debilitating long term injury, such as amputation or
coma
• Serious: Permanent or non-reversible injury that severely impact enjoyment of
life and may require continued treatment
• Moderate: Permanent or reversible minor injury that does not significantly
impact enjoyment of life, but requires medical treatment
• Slight: Reversible injury requiring simple medical treatment with no
confinement
Risk assessment estimated by probability of hazardous event:
• High: Very likely to occur, protective measures is nearly worthless
• Medium: Occurrence is likely. The frequency of control measures is significant,
or control measures are adequate
• Moderate: Occurrence is possible, but not likely
• Low: Occurrence is so unlikely as to be considered nearly zero
Risk Assessment Matrix
Probability Severity
Severe Serious Moderate Slight
High High High Medium Low
Medium High Medium Low Low
Moderate Medium Low Low Negligible
Low Low Low Negligible Negligible
An accident is an unplanned and uncontrolled event, caused by
unsafe acts and/or unsafe conditions
Unsafe acts of people can be described as follows:
• Working at unsafe speeds.
• Working without authority.
• Failure to secure machinery and materials.
• Rendering safety devices inoperative.
• Arranging or placing objects unsafely.
• Fooling, teasing, and abusing workmates.
• Using equipment unsafely or limbs instead of equipment
supplied.
• Adjusting or working on moving equipment.
• Taking chances.
• Failure to use safety equipment or to wear protective apparel.
Unsafe conditions can be described as follows:
• Unsafe construction.
• Disorder and haphazard planning.
• Lack of machine and other guards.
• Defective working conditions, such as rough, sharp or slippery
surfaces.
• Inadequate guarding.
• Bad factory layout with inadequate or badly marked walkways
and exits.
• No personal protective equipment.
• Unsafe ventilation.
• Unsafe factory lighting.
Types of Accidents
There are several types of accidents that can occur, and they can be
categorized in various ways. Some common types of accidents include:
• Workplace Accidents: Workplace accidents are accidents that occur in
the workplace, such as slips, trips, and falls, accidents involving
machinery or vehicles, and exposure to hazardous materials.
• Traffic Accidents: Traffic accidents are accidents that occur on the road,
such as car crashes, motorcycle accidents, and pedestrian accidents.
• Home Accidents: Home accidents are accidents that occur in the home,
such as falls, burns, and poisoning.
• Natural Disasters: Natural disasters such as hurricanes, earthquakes, and
floods can cause widespread damage and injuries. Injuries can be caused
by falling debris, flooding, or exposure to extreme weather conditions.
• Sports and Recreation Accidents: Sports and recreation accidents can
happen during any type of physical activity, such as team sports,
individual sports, or recreational activities like skiing or hiking. Common
sports and recreation accidents include fractures, sprains, and head
injuries.
The basic causes of accidents:
• Unsafe conditions/ behaviour.
• Lack of knowledge and/or skill.
• Physical or mental defect/ human error.
• Improper attitude.
• Natural disaster/ environmental factors

The four basic remedies to accidents:

• Engineering revision.
• Education, training, persuasion and appeal.
• Personnel placement and adjustment.
• Discipline (control).
Plant housekeeping simply means a place for everything and everything in its
place at all times. It is important and desirable because:
• It cuts down the time spent in finding and checking goods, articles and tools.
• Space is saved when everything is packed away tidily.
• Injuries are avoided when gangways and working areas are clear of
superfluous materials.
• Fire hazards are reduced if combustible materials are kept in proper
receptacles.

To achieve good housekeeping:

• Provide receptacles for waste.
• Mark out aisles, roadways and passages.
• Stop over-drawing of materials to prevent them piling up haphazardly.
• Provide facilities for proper storage and stacking.
• Put up notices for the guidance of staff.
• Introduce colour coding and make somebody responsible for carrying out
these rules.
Typical accidents of poor housekeeping
• Workers tripping over loose objects on floors.
• Particles dropping from above.
• Workers slipping on greasy, wet or dirty floors.
• Staff running against projecting, poorly piled or badly placed materials.
• Hands or other parts of the body cut on projecting nails, steel strapping,
splinters or wire.
• Fires.

The effect of good housekeeping

• Good housekeeping improves the working environment. This means
pleasanter working conditions which arouse a desire in workers for greater
efficiency.
• The end product increased production. When an outsider finds everything
at a factory systematically taken care of, he recognizes that orderly
arrangement not only leads to good accident records but indicates
competent management and efficient workmanship.
Laboratory Safety Rules
• Students should come to an open lab in their free time and practicals during their
allocated time and must always sign the register provided. No student will be allowed
into the lab for practicals at any time which is not allocated to them. Note, students will
not be allowed to an open lab after a certain number is met (that is, when the group
number required is completed or full).
• Note that time management is important in this module. Students are advised to use
their time very well. No open lab will be allowed during submission week, and no one
will be allowed to use any equipment during the submission week of any assessment.
• Students will not be allowed into the labs if they have not done their pre-prac work
where necessary.
• Students who require assistance should make proper arrangements with the Technical
Assistant.
• No eating or drinking in the laboratories or classrooms (this includes the chewing of
gum).
• Closed shoes are always to be worn (slipslops, bare feet and open shoes are not
allowed).
• Cell phones are not to be used in the labs for making calls or chats.
• No unsupervised access is allowed in any of the laboratories.
• Permission must be obtained before entering the laboratories.
• Students are required to bring their own toolbox to all laboratory sessions, including a
flat screwdriver, star screwdriver, side cutters, long‐nose pliers, multimeters. No
borrowing or lending of tools will be allowed.
• Students are required to always wear their safety gear (such as goggles and ear
plugs) whenever they are using a mechanical machine. Note that no student
will be allowed without safety gear.
• No student shall remove any laboratory equipment from the lab or
workstation.
• Workstations must always be kept neat – it is the students’ responsibility to
check if all the necessary equipment and/or cables are available and that
everything is in good working condition before commencing with the prac.
• If anything is missing from the workstation, please notify the Technical
Assistant immediately (also, ensure that details of missing equipment are
recorded in writing before using the workstation by the Technical Assistant).
• Intentional misconduct will lead to the exclusion of the student from the lab.
• Students are not allowed to enter the laboratory storerooms without express
permission.
• Ensure that all electrical equipment including PCs is switched off before leaving
the lab at the end of a prac (you might be instructed to restart the PCs as well).
• Students who break equipment must report it to the Technical Assistant.
• Report all accidents, cuts, burns etc, however minor, to the Technical Assistant.
• Read all the signs in the labs, and
• Think about safety.
Read
Signs
&
Think
Safety
Electrostatic Discharge
(ESD) Protection
One of the most prevalent threats to the integrity of electronic components and integrated circuits (ICs) in various electronic industries such as
Telecommunications, IT, mobile phones, consumer electronics is ESD.

Electrostatic Discharge:
• Is the SUDDEN discharge of static electricity between two objects or
• It’s the transfer of an electrostatic charge between bodies at different electrical potentials.
• It’s also an event in which a finite amount of charge is transferred from one object (e.g. human
body) to another (e.g. microchip).
This process can result in a very high current passing through the object within a very short period of time.

Electrostatic Charge (or Static electricity) Generation

ESD first requires a build-up of static electricity (electrostatic charge is a charge at rest).

It appears during separation of an object from a surface, that an object picks up additional electrons
from the surface that it is separated from and becomes negatively charge, while the surface that had
given up the electrons then becomes positively charged, during these separation, the transfers of
electrons, the surplus or absence creates an electrical field known as static electricity.
Also, electric charges are generated at anytime when any two objects/materials are rubbed together,
this is known as triboelectric effect.
Some examples of the movement that create static charge are Rubbing plastic comb through our hair or our clothing rubbing
as we walk .
The buildup of static electricity can be caused by several factors, such as:
• Humidity: Low humidity can cause an increase in static electricity buildup, as dry air is a poor conductor of
electricity.
• Synthetic Materials: Synthetic materials, such as nylon, polyester, and vinyl, are good insulators and can cause an
increase in static electricity buildup.
• Friction: Friction between two objects can cause an increase in static electricity buildup, especially when one of
the objects is an insulator.
• Temperature: Temperature changes can cause an increase in static electricity buildup, as the charge on an object
can change as the temperature changes.

Processes of charge generation on an object

• The triboelectrification process - the charges generated by contacting and rubbing of 2 different objects;
• The inductive process - the charges are generated because of the presence of an electric field;
• The conductive process - the uncharged object is charged after it is in touch with another charged object.
Main causes of ESD
• When two surfaces in contact are separated
• Friction of two objects rubbed together
• Movement of materials against surfaces: as you walk across the carpet,
several thousand of volts of electrical charge are being generated
Example of ESD event: When your finger comes close to a doorknob or
computer screen you may feel a slight shock.
• Sometimes the results of an ESD event might not show up for weeks or
months in electrical components.
• You may not realize it or feel nothing, but every time you touch an
electronic equipment, the sensitive electronic component could either
damage or become unstable.
Types of ESD
• Sparks – this occurs when a strong electric field creates
an ionized conductive channel in the air. This may cause
minor discomfort to the people, severe damage to
electronic devices, fires and explosions if the air
contains combustible gases (e.g. lightning).
• Corona discharge – an electrical discharge brought on
by the ionization of a fluid surrounding a conductor that
is electrically energized.
• Brush discharge – (like a corona discharge) an electrical
disruptive discharge that takes place between two
electrodes embedded in a nonconducting medium.
Types of materials that charge
Conductors Insulators
• These are materials that • These are the type of
easily transfer electric materials that hold electric
charge charge
• It can be used to transfer • These cannot easily transfer
the charge to earths the charge
ground • It can not be grounded to the
• It can discharge earth by common means
• Examples: • Examples:
 People  Dry air
 Metals  Plastics
 Water  Glass
Some Sources of ESD
Examples of some materials that can generate and hold electrostatic charge
• Plastic document holders
• Sheet protectors
• Plastic pens
• Plastic housings on equipment
• Plastic spray bottles
• Equipment covers
• Vinyl binders
• Paper, schematics, etc.
• Personal items: purses, sweaters/jackets, insulated
lunch totes, combs/brushes, lotion bottles, etc.
Types of ESD damage
Smaller components means greater sensitivity to ESD. Damage to these components cannot be detected by the naked eyes.
Also, we humans can’t detect a static charge from about 2-3000 V. Whereas sensitive electronics get damaged by voltages <100 V in
range (hard drive components are sensitive to about 10 volts).

1. Catastrophic failure (defect)

• A device is exposed to ESD and it no longer works
• The device circuitry is permanently damaged
• Such failures may be caught when tested, before shipment
2. Latent failure (defect)
• A device is exposed to ESD and is partially damaged, yet it continues to
work or function
• The product may have a failure after the user places it in service
• This failure is hard to detect & significantly shortens the life of the device
Categories of ESD damages of the electronic devices
• Oxide breakdown
• Junction failure
• Metal fusing
Effects of ESD
ESD and static electricity have been a serious industrial problem for centuries, despite a great deal of
effort made during the past years, it still affects electronic devices
• Higher Manufacturing costs
• Lower Production yields
• Production quality
• Production reliability, and
• Profitability
• Unhappy customers
ESD Simulations/ Models
There are three models for assessing the survivability or susceptibility of
electronic devices:
1. Human body model: an event when a charged person touches electronic
device
2. Machine model: an event when a charged metal is in contact with an
electronic device
3. Charged device model: an event when a charged device is in contact with a
grounded object.
Basics of ESD Protection
Electronic device manufacturers incorporate measures to prevent ESD events throughout the manufacturing, testing, shipping and
handling processes in a static-free zone or an ESD protected area (EPA) using the following structure:

1. Provide ESD Control Training

 Proper use of personal grounding equipment
 Understanding ESD equipment test techniques, control methods and documentation
2. Create ESD Control Area
 Handling unprotected ESDS parts and assembly area
 Labelling ESD areas with posted signs and marking the boundaries
3. Ground the conductors (includes people and equipment) within the EPA using:
 Wrist straps and coil cords
 Foot/ heel grounders
 Conductive floor mats – ground ESD floor mats through ground cable to equipment
 Dissipative work surfaces – ground ESD work surfaces through ground cable to the common point ground equipment
4. Ionization: Neutralize insulators with ionizers
 Ionize air flow floods the area with ions (neutralizing charged)
 Charged insulators cannot be grounded
5. ESDS Component Handling and Storage - the following is used to move ESDS parts in EPA:
 Static dissipative and shielding containers
 Board carriers or conductive containers
 Ground movable racks
ESD Protection Routine
• Ground all conductors (people & equipment) at ESD workstation
• Only allow trained or escorted people in EPA
• Test wrist straps at least daily or use continuous monitors
• Test ESD footwear at least daily if used
• Visually check all grounding cords
• Handle unpacked ESDS items only when grounded
• Use shielded packaging for shipping or storing ESDS items outside EPA
• Maintain ionizers and direct air flow on ESDS items
• Keep wristband snug, foot grounder grounding tab in the shoe, and ESD smocks buttoned

ESD Product Applications

• Communications such as phones, fax, webcams etc.
• Information processing: notebook computers, LCD monitors, modems, scanners…..
• Consumer electronics: TV, cell phones ……
• Business machines: photocopying machines, air-conditioner, anti-theft systems…
• Industrial machinery: cars, motors, equipment….
ESD Sensitive Materials
• Integrated circuits (DIP, QFP, BGA, SOP, etc.)

• Quartz Crystal Oscillators

• Printed circuit board assemblies

When you are in doubt of any components, treat the it as ESDS

Review of Basic
Instruments
Physical Instruments
Virtual Instruments
Virtual instrument is referred to as a software synthesizer, a
computer program or plug-in that generates digital audio/ a
program that implements functions of an instrument by computer,
sensors and actuators. Multisim is used for electronic circuit
analysis.
• Multisim is industry standard SPICE simulation, electronic
schematic capture and circuit design software along with
Ultiboard for analog, digital and power electronics.
• Ultiboard is an electronic Printed Circuit Board (PCB) design
and layout software that integrates seamlessly with Multisim in
order to accelerate PCB prototype development.
• SPICE (Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis) is a general-
purpose analogue electronic circuit simulator. Also, a program
used in integrated circuit and board-level design to check the
integrity of circuit designs and to predict circuit behaviour.
Review of Electronic
Components
A resistor is an electrical component that reduces or resist the
flow of electric current. It is measured in units of ohms. This type
fixed resistor
A variable resistor/potentiometer is a resistor with electric value
that can be adjusted or adjustable resistor (i.e. by turning
manually, the resistance changes).
Resistors can be used to control voltage and current in a circuit.
A light-dependent resistor (LDR) or photoresistor is also
a variable resistor, with the resistance that changes with the light
intensity that fall on it. They are often used in a circuit where it is
necessary to detect the presence or the level of light.
A capacitor is a device that stores electricity and then discharges
it back into the circuit when there is a drop in voltage. A
capacitor is like a rechargeable battery and can be charged and
then discharged. (Measured in Farads, small capacitors are in
microfarads, nanofarads and picofarads). It can smooth out
signals (eliminate ripple or spikes in DC voltage), can supply a
pool of electrons for immediate use.
Wrong polarity can fry your component.
A diode is a two-way terminal that only
conducts current in one direction. It has low
resistance (ideally zero) in one direction and
high resistance (ideally infinite) in the other
direction. Its polarity can be distinguished from
the bar present at the cathode. Role is to
prevent electricity from taking an unwanted
path within the circuit.
Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a semiconductor
light source (i.e. emits light when electricity
passes through it). Current always flows from
the anode (+) to the cathode (-) and never in the
opposite direction. The longer leg of the LED is
the positive (anode) side.
Transistor – a semiconductor device used to amplify and
switch electronic signals and electrical power. It turns
on/off when triggered by an electronic signal. Similar to
relay only it has no moving parts.

A relay is an electrically operated switch that opens or

closes when power is applied.

An integrated circuit (IC) is a chip or microchip that can

function as an amplifier, oscillator, timer, microprocessor or
even computer memory.
Also, it is a semiconductor wafer which consists from
hundreds to millions of tiny resistors, capacitors and
transistors are fabricated.
An operational amplifier is an IC that operates as a
voltage amplifier

The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit used in a variety

of timer, pulse generation, and oscillator applications. The
555 can be used to provide time delays, as an oscillator,
and as a flip-flop element
Function, Features and
Characteristics of
Electronic Equipment
• Breadboard is an essential tool for prototyping and building
temporary circuits. These boards contain holes for inserting wire and
components. Because of their temporary nature, they allow you to
create circuits without soldering.

• A multimeter is a device that’s used to measure electric current

(amps), voltage (volts) and resistance (ohms). It’s a great for
troubleshooting circuits and is capable of measuring both AC and DC
voltage.

• Wire cutter & nose pliers are essential for stripping stranded and
solid copper wire.

• Precision screwdrivers are also known as jeweler’s screwdrivers and

usually come as a set. The advantage of these over normal
screwdrivers is the precision tips of each driver. These are very handy
when working with electronics that contain tiny screws.

• Soldering Iron: When it's time to create a permanent circuit, you’ll

want to solder the parts together. To do this, a soldering iron is the
tool you would use. Also, a soldering iron is not good unless you have
solder to go with it. You can choose leaded or lead-free solder in a
few diameters.
• The power supply is a really practical tool when it
comes to circuits. It allows you to power your
circuits before they are finished, to test individual
circuits, to experiment, etc.
• The oscilloscope is a great tool for debugging and
better understand what is going on with your
circuits. It constantly observes the variation if
voltage signals as a 2 dimensional plot of one or
more signals as a function of time.
• Function generator is an electronic device used for
generating electronic signals either in the analog or
digital domains (repeating or non-repeating signals).
Signal generators are used in testing, designing and
repairing electro acoustic or electronic devices.
Introduction to Hand Soldering
Soldering is a process of joining two metal surfaces using a filler metal called
solder. It is an essential technique used in the manufacturing and repairing of
electronic devices.
Soldering is used to create a strong, reliable, and low-resistance electrical
connection between components in electronic circuits.
Fundamentals of soldering
• Solder – is a metal alloy that is melted and flowed into the joint to create a
permanent bond
• Flux – is a chemical substance that de-oxidizes the metals being soldered. It
usually provides a clean surface for the solder to adhere to.
• Heat – is applied to the metal surfaces to melt the solder and create a strong or
permanent joint. The amount of heat depends on the type of solder and metal
surfaces being joined.
• Wetting – is the term used to describe the characteristic of how quickly solder
melts and bonds to a given surface.
Methods of heat transfer:
• Conduction – Hand soldering: is the method which
typically uses a soldering iron as its source of heat.
• Convection – Reflow soldering: this typically uses a
hot air gun, specialized oven or furnace as its source of
heat.
• Combination – Wave soldering: this method uses a
wave soldering oven that combines conduction and
convection as its source of heat (it involves passing a PCB over
a wave of molten solder)
• Desoldering – Desoldering is the process of removing
solder from a joint. Desoldering can be done with a
desoldering pump or with solder wick.
Equipment & Materials required for Soldering
• Solder wire
• Solder paste
• Soldering iron
• Soldering iron stand
• Wet cellulose sponge or abrasive brass coils
• De-soldering wick (braid) or de-soldering pump
(sucker)
• Wire stripper, side/ flush/diagonal cutters
• Vise or third hand and tweezers, etc
• PCB or Veroboard
Soldering Process
• Preparation: The first step in the soldering process is to prepare the
components and the soldering iron. This involves cleaning the components or
surfaces to be soldered from dirt, dust and grease or any contaminants that could
interfere with the soldering process, heat the iron at the appropriate temperature
for the type of soldering being performed.
• Tinning: This involves applying a small amount of solder to the tip of the
soldering iron to improve heat transfer and prevent oxidation. This step is
important especially when soldering surface-mount components.
• Placement: The components to be soldered are then placed onto the Veroboard
or PCB, it could be either through holes or on the surface of the board. The
components should be positioned correctly or can be held in place with clamps
or vise or tweezers to ensure proper alignment and spacing.
• Soldering: The soldering wire is then applied to the joint between the
component and the PCB. The solder melts and flows into the joint, creating a
strong bond between the two metals. The solder should be applied evenly, and
excess solder should be removed with a solder wick or solder sucker.
• Cooling: After the solder has been applied, the materials are allowed to cool,
ensuring that the solder solidifies and forms a strong bond.
• Cleaning: The PCB should be cleaned to remove any residue or flux. This step
is important to ensure that the solder joint is strong and reliable.
• Ideal solder joint (THTS):

Some of the key factors that contribute to proper soldering include:

• Soldering Temperature: Soldering temperature is critical for creating a strong bond
between components. If the temperature is too low, the solder may not melt properly
and will not create a strong bond. If the temperature is too high, it can damage the
components or the printed circuit board.
• Soldering Technique: Proper soldering technique involves ensuring that the components
are held firmly in place and that the solder flows evenly into the joint. It is important to
avoid overheating the components or the solder, as this can cause damage to the
components or the printed circuit board
Importance of Proper Soldering Techniques
•Proper soldering techniques are essential for creating reliable and durable electronic
products.
•Improper soldering can lead to poor electrical connections, weak mechanical bonds, and
even damage to electronic components.
Soldering applications: It is used in a variety of applications in the electronics industry,
including printed circuit board assembly, wire harness manufacturing, and repair work. It is
an essential process for creating reliable and durable electronic products.
Safety Precautions for Soldering
• Wear protective equipment: When soldering, it is important to
wear protective equipment such as safety glasses and heat-
resistant gloves to protect your eyes and hands from the heat
and potential splatters of molten solder.
• Use proper ventilation: Soldering produces fumes that can be
hazardous to your health if inhaled. It is important to use
proper ventilation when soldering, such as a fume extractor or
a well-ventilated workspace.
• Avoid contact with hot surfaces: Soldering involves the use of
high temperatures, so it is important to avoid contact with hot
surfaces to prevent burns and other injuries.
• Use proper handling techniques: When handling hot soldering
irons and other equipment, it is important to use proper
handling techniques to avoid accidents and injuries.
Common Soldering Problems

• Disturbed joint
• Cold or
• Dry joint

• Overheating joint
• Insufficient wetting (pad)

• Insufficient wetting (lead/pin)

• Solder starved
• Too much solder

• Untrimmed leads

• Solder bridge
• Lifted pad

• Strayed solder spatters

• Tacked joint
• Solder tunnel

• Missed joint

• Solder spike

• Solder ball
Measurement Techniques
The first step that leads to control and eventually led to improvement is Measurement. Anything you
can’t measure, you can’t understand it; if you can’t understand it, you can’t control it; and once you
can’t control something, you can’t improve on it. One accurate measurement is worth a thousand
expert opinions.
• Measurement is the process of determining the value of
a physical quantity or property.
• It is a fundamental aspect of science and engineering, as
well as many other fields, including business, finance,
and health care.
• Measurements allow us to describe, compare, and
analyze different phenomena and properties, and they
are essential for accurate and reliable scientific and
technological research.
Basics of Measurement
The basic level of measurement involves comparing an unknown quantity or
property to a known standard or reference. This process involves several
key steps:
• Selecting a Standard: The first step in any measurement is selecting an
appropriate standard or reference for the quantity or property being
measured. Standards can be physical objects, such as a standard weight
or length, or they can be defined in terms of fundamental physical
constants, such as the speed of light or the charge on an electron.
• Calibration: Once a standard has been selected, it must be calibrated to
ensure that it is accurate and reliable. Calibration involves comparing the
standard to other standards or reference materials and making
adjustments as necessary.
• Measurement: Once the standard has been calibrated, it can be used to
make measurements of the unknown quantity or property. This involves
comparing the unknown to the standard and recording the result.
• Analysis: Finally, the measurement must be analyzed and interpreted to
determine its meaning and significance. This may involve statistical
analysis, error analysis, or comparison to other measurements or
standards.
Methods of Measurement
There are different methods of measurement, depending on the physical quantity being measured and the
level of precision required. Some common methods of measurement are:
• Direct Measurement: this involves using an instrument to measure a physical quantity directly, such as
using a ruler to measure the length of an object or a thermometer to measure temperature.
• Indirect Measurement: this involves using other measurements to calculate the value of a physical
quantity, such as using the length and width of a rectangle to calculate its area.
• Sampling: involves measuring a representative sample of a larger population, such as measuring the
heights of a sample of students to estimate the average height of all students.
• Timing: involves measuring the time it takes for a process to occur, such as measuring the time it takes for
a ball to fall from a certain height to the ground.
• Counting: involves measuring the number of objects or events that occur, such as counting the number of
cars that pass through a toll gate or booth.
• Weighing: involves measuring the mass of an object,
• Triangulation: is a method of measurement that involves measuring the angles of a triangle formed by
three points. This method is used to measure distances that are too large to be measured directly.
• Calibration: is a method of measurement that involves comparing a measuring instrument to a reference
instrument of known accuracy. This method is used to ensure that the measuring instrument is accurate
and reliable.
• Interferometry: is a method of measurement that involves measuring the interference of waves. This
method is used to measure small distances and changes in shape or position.
• Spectroscopy: is a method of measurement that involves measuring the interaction of light with matter.
This method is used to identify and quantify the chemical composition of materials.
• Electrical Measurements - involve measuring electrical quantities such as voltage, current, resistance, and
capacitance. This method is used in electronics, electrical engineering, and other fields.
Types of Measurement
There are different types of measurements, depending on the quantity or property being measured. Some common
types of measurement or components that we measure are:
• Length: is the measurement of a physical distance or dimension. It is typically measured in units such as meters,
centimeters, or feet.
• Mass: is the measurement of the amount of matter in an object. It is typically measured in units such as grams or
kilograms.
• Weight: is the measurement of the force exerted on an object due to gravity. It is typically measured in units such
as kilograms, pounds, or ounces.
• Volume: is the measurement of the amount of space occupied by an object or substance. It is typically measured
in units such as liters or gallons.
• Frequency: is the measurement of the number of cycles per unit of time in a waveform. It is typically measured in
units such as hertz.
• Time: is the measurement of the duration of an event or interval. It is typically measured in units such as seconds,
minutes, or hours.
• Temperature: is the measurement of the degree of hotness or coldness of an object or environment. It is typically
measured in units such as Celsius or Fahrenheit.
• Pressure: this involve determining the force exerted by a gas or liquid on a surface. Common tools for measuring
pressure include gauges, transducers, and manometers.
• Electrical Properties: Electrical measurements involve determining the properties of electrical circuits, such as
voltage, current, resistance, and capacitance. Common tools for measuring electrical properties include
multimeters, oscilloscopes, and power analyzers.
• Electric Current: is the measurement of the flow of electric charge through a conductor. It is typically measured in
units such as amperes.
• Chemical Properties: Chemical measurements involve determining the properties of chemical substances, such as
acidity, alkalinity, or concentration. Common tools for measuring chemical properties include pH meters, titration
equipment, and spectrophotometers.
• Luminosity: Luminosity is the measurement of the amount of light emitted by a source. It is typically measured in
units such as lumens.
In order for measurements to be meaningful, they must be expressed in units of
measurement.
There are two types of units of measurement:
1. Fundamental Units: are the units of measurement for the seven basic physical
quantities. These units include:
 Length: meter (m)
 Mass: kilogram (kg)
 Time: second (s)
 Electric current: ampere (A)
 Temperature: kelvin (K)
 Amount of substance: mole (mol)
 Luminous intensity: candela (cd)
2. Derived Units: are the units of measurement for physical quantities that are derived
from the fundamental units. These units include:
 Area: square meter (m²)
 Volume: cubic meter (m³)
 Velocity: meter per second (m/s)
 Acceleration: meter per second squared (m/s²)
 Force: newton (N)
 Energy: joule (J)
 Power: watt (W)
Also, unit of measurements are any division of quantity which is
acceptable as one unit of that quantity
Knowing units of components or quantities are important
• Kilo and Mega are common in resistors, while
• milli, micro, nano and pico can be used in other components
M (mega) = 1,000,000 = 106
K (kilo) = 1,000 = 103
m (milli) = 1/1,000 = 10-3
µ (micro) = 1/1000,000 = 10-6
n (nano) = 1/1,000,000,000 = 10-9
p (pico) = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 10-12
Tools and Techniques for Measurement
There are numerous tools and techniques used for measurement, depending on the quantity
or property being measured. Some common tools and techniques include:
• Rulers and Tape Measures: are used to measure length.
• Stopwatches, Clocks and Timers are used to measure time.
• Thermometers are used to measure temperature.
• Multimeters: are used to measure electrical quantities such as current, voltage etc.
• Light Meters are used to measure luminosity.
• Calipers and Micrometers are used to measure dimensions with high accuracy.
Micrometers are used to measure very short distances, typically in the range of 0.001 mm
to 25 mm.
• Balances and Scales are used to measure weight or mass.
• Thermometers are used to measure temperature.
• Spectrometers are used to measure the properties of light, such as its wavelength
and intensity.
• Spectrophotometer are used to measure the intensity of light absorbed or transmitted by a
sample.
• Oscilloscopes are used to measure electrical signals, such as voltage or current.
• Pressure Gauges are used to measure pressure.
• Protractors are used to measure angles.
• pH Meters are used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a substance.
• Infrared Cameras are used to measure temperature and to detect heat sources.
• Vernier Scales are used to measure the distance between two points with high precision.
Importance of Measurement
Measurements are important for several reasons:
• Accuracy ensures that data is accurate and reliable. This is important in scientific research, where
accurate measurements are necessary for making valid conclusions.
• Precision allows us to determine the exact value of a physical quantity, enabling us to be more
precise in our calculations and predictions.
• Comparison allows for comparison between different objects or events. This is important in
several fields, such as medicine and engineering, where comparing the properties of different
materials or substances is essential.
• Prediction can be used to predict future outcomes. For example, temperature and pressure can
help predict weather patterns.
• Solve Problems are used to identify and quantify problems and to develop solutions to those
problems.
• Control Quality are used to ensure that products and processes meet certain standards of
quality and reliability.
• Monitor Performance are used to monitor the performance of systems and processes and to
identify opportunities for improvement.
• Make Decisions are used to make informed decisions, such as when to replace equipment, when
to adjust settings, or when to take action to address problems.
• Standardization of measurements is important for consistency and accuracy in different fields.
Without standardized units of measurement, it would be challenging to communicate and
compare data across different experiments, studies, or applications.
• Scientific inquiry is a critical tool for scientists to make observations, collect data, and test
hypotheses.
Importance of Accuracy and Precision in Measurement
Accuracy and precision are two important concepts in measurement.
• Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true value of the quantity
being measured, while
• Precision refers to how consistent or repeatable a measurement is.
• Accurate and precise measurements are important for several reasons. They
allow us to make reliable observations, perform calculations, and test theories.
• They are also critical in several fields, such as science, engineering, medicine, and
finance.
• In science and engineering, accurate and precise measurements are essential for
designing and testing new technologies and materials.
• Inaccurate measurements can lead to incorrect conclusions and possibly
dangerous situations.
• For example, in engineering, inaccurate measurements of structural components
can lead to the failure of a building or device, resulting in injury or death.
• However, achieving high levels of accuracy and precision can be challenging.
• There are certain factors that affect the accuracy of measurements, guidelines to
make accurate measurements, and several sources of error that can affect the
accuracy and precision of measurements.
• Therefore, it is important to take steps to minimize these sources of error and
ensure that the measurements are as accurate and precise as possible.
Several factors that can affect the accuracy of measurements. These
include:
• Instrument Calibration: Instruments used for measurements must
be calibrated regularly to ensure that they are providing accurate
readings.
• Human Error can affect the accuracy of measurements, such as
misreading a scale or making incorrect calculations.
• Environmental Factors such as temperature, humidity, or vibration
can affect the accuracy of measurements.
• Instrument Resolution: The resolution of an instrument refers to
the smallest increment that can be measured. Higher-resolution
instruments are generally more accurate.
• Sampling refers to the process of selecting a subset of a larger
population for measurement. Careful sampling can improve the
accuracy of measurements.
• Statistical Analysis can be used to identify and correct errors in
measurement data.
To make accurate measurements, it is important to follow certain guidelines and use
the appropriate tools. Some tips for making accurate measurements include:
1. Choosing the Right Tool for a job is essential for making accurate measurements.
For example, using a ruler to measure the length of a pencil is more accurate than
using a piece of string.
2. Taking Multiple Measurements and averaging them can help to reduce errors and
improve accuracy.
3. Paying Attention to Units is important for making accurate measurements. Make
sure to use the correct units of measurement and convert between units if
necessary.
4. Eliminating Parallax Error: Parallax error occurs when the position of the observer
affects the measurement. To eliminate parallax error, make sure to read the
measurement directly in front of the tool.
5. Using Precision Instruments such as micrometers or calipers, can help to make
more accurate measurements.
6. Minimizing External Factors such as temperature or humidity, can affect
measurements. Minimizing these external factors can help to improve accuracy.
7. Calibrating Instruments such as scales or thermometers, can help to ensure that
they are measuring accurately.
Challenges in Measurement
• Measurement is a critical process in several fields, it can also be challenging and result in errors.
• Measurement errors are an unavoidable part of any measurement process.
• They are the difference between actual value and the measured value of a physical quantity.
• There are two main types of measurement errors: systematic errors and random errors.
• Systematic errors are errors that occur consistently and are usually caused by a flaw in the measurement instrument or
the limitations of the measurement instrument or a bias in the measurement process.
• Random errors are errors that occur randomly and are caused by fluctuations in the measurement process. These errors
are usually caused by factors that are difficult to control or predict, such as changes in the environment or variations in
the measurement process.
• Both errors can arise from various sources, such as instruments, the environment, and the experimenter.
• Instrument errors are errors that arise from the limitations of the measuring instrument. These errors can result from
various factors, including calibration errors, drift, hysteresis, and non-linearity.
• Calibration errors can result from a faulty calibration procedure, incorrect calibration standards, or incorrect adjustment
of the instrument.
• Drift is a gradual change in the measuring instrument's readings over time. Drift can result from changes in the
environment, changes in the instrument's internal components, or wear and tear.
• Hysteresis is a phenomenon where the readings of the measuring instrument depend on the direction of change.
Hysteresis can result from internal friction in the instrument's components.
• Non-Linearity is a deviation from a linear relationship between the measured values and the physical quantity being
measured. Non-linearity can result from limitations in the instrument's design or calibration.
• Noise: This is the random variation in a measurement caused by factors such as electrical interference or vibration.
• Operator Errors: The operator of the measuring instrument can also contribute to measurement errors. Factors such as
fatigue, inexperience, or misreading the instrument can all lead to measurement errors.
• Environmental errors are errors that arise from the variations in the environment in which the measurements are taken.
These errors can result from various factors, such as temperature, humidity, pressure, and electromagnetic interference.
• Procedural Errors occur due to limitations or inaccuracies in the measurement process itself. These errors may result
from incorrect measurement techniques, inadequate environmental controls, or inappropriate calibration procedures.
• Gross Errors are errors that occur due to human error, such as misreading the instrument or entering data incorrectly.
These can lead to significantly incorrect measurements, which can have serious consequences in some industries.
Quantifying Measurement Errors
Several ways in measurement errors can be quantified, are:
• Accuracy is the degree to which a measured value corresponds to the true value. It
is expressed as the difference between the measured value and the true value. The
accuracy of a measurement can be improved by using a more precise measuring
instrument or by eliminating sources of systematic error.
• Precision is the degree to which repeated measurements of the same quantity
produce the same result. It is expressed as the standard deviation of the
measurements. The precision of a measurement can be improved by taking more
measurements and averaging the results.
• Resolution is the smallest change in the quantity being measured that can be
detected by the measuring instrument. It is expressed as the least significant digit of
the measuring instrument. The resolution of a measurement can be improved by
using a measuring instrument with higher precision or by adjusting the measuring
instrument to increase sensitivity.
• Sensitivity is the degree to which the measuring instrument responds to changes in
the quantity being measured. It is expressed as the ratio of the change in the
measured value to the change in the quantity being measured. The sensitivity of a
measurement can be improved by using a measuring instrument with higher
resolution or by adjusting the measuring instrument to increase sensitivity.
Reducing or Eliminating Measurement Errors
It might be impossible to eliminate measurement errors completely. However, several steps can be taken to reduce
their impact and improve the accuracy of measurements.
• Selecting the Right Instrument: Choosing the right measuring instrument for an application is important in reducing
errors. The instrument should be appropriate for the quantity being measured and the environmental conditions in
which it will be used.
• Calibration: Regular calibration of measuring instruments can help to reduce systematic errors. Calibration involves
comparing the readings of a measuring instrument to a known standard and making any necessary adjustments to
correct any errors.
• Standardization: Using standardized measurement procedures can help to reduce both systematic and random
errors. Standardization involves using established procedures and techniques that have been proven to produce
accurate and reliable measurements.
• Operator Training: Providing adequate training to operators and observers can help to reduce observer errors.
Training should cover the proper use of measurement instruments, as well as any established procedures and
techniques.
• Environmental Controls: Controlling the environment in which measurements are taken can help to reduce
environmental errors. This may involve controlling temperature and humidity levels, as well as reducing sources of
noise and vibration.
• Multiple Measurements: Taking multiple measurements and averaging the results can help to reduce random
errors. This technique can help to eliminate outliers and produce a more accurate representation of the actual
value.
• Error Analysis or Statistical Analysis: Analyzing measurement data for patterns of error can help to identify
potential sources of error and lead to improvements in the measuring process. This can involve techniques such as
statistical process control, which can identify trends in measurement data and highlight areas for improvement.
• Automation can help to reduce human error in the measurement process. This can be achieved through the use of
automated data collection and analysis software.
• Instrument Design is essential for ensuring accurate measurements. Instruments should be designed to minimize
the effects of environmental factors and to be easy to use and interpret
• Interference Control such as shielding or filtering can help to minimize interference errors in electronic instruments.
Standards & Calibration
• Standards are an essential part of modern society, ensuring safety, efficiency, and quality across a wide
range of industries. They provide a common language for communication and a reference point for
decision making, enabling businesses to compete fairly and consumers to make informed choices.
• Standards are defined as a set of rules, guidelines, or principles that establish a common
understanding of a product, service, or process. They provide a reference point for quality, safety, and
reliability across industries, ensuring that products and services meet certain minimum requirements.
Importance of Standards
Some specific examples of the importance of standards are:
• Ensuring or Enhanced Safety: Standards are essential for ensuring the safety of people and products.
They establish minimum requirements for things like building codes, electrical systems, and
transportation equipment, reducing the risk of accidents and injuries.
• Ensuring Product Quality or Improved Quality: Standards are critical for maintaining the quality of
products and services. They provide a reference point for performance and reliability, enabling
consumers to make informed choices and businesses to compete on a level playing field.
• Increased Efficiency: Standards help to improve efficiency by establishing common practices and
reducing variation. This can result in lower costs, shorter lead times, and improved productivity.
• Encourage Innovation: Standards can drive innovation by providing a platform for collaboration and
sharing of best practices. They can also provide a framework for new technologies, enabling their
adoption and commercialization.
• Increased Customer Confidence: Standards provide customers with assurance that products and
services meet certain quality and safety requirements, which can increase customer confidence and
loyalty.
• Facilitate Trade: Standards provide a common language and framework for international trade, which
can facilitate trade and reduce barriers to entry.
• Reduce Costs: Standards related to processes and procedures can help to reduce costs by streamlining
processes and reducing waste.
Types of Standards
There are several types of standards which serves a specific purpose. Some common types of standards are:
• Product Standards establish minimum requirements for the performance, safety, and quality of products.
Examples include the International Organization for Standardization's (ISO) standards for quality
management systems and the American Society for Testing and Materials' (ASTM) standards for materials
and products.
• Process Standards establish best practices for manufacturing, service delivery, and other processes.
Examples include the Occupational Safety and Health Act's (OSHA) standards for workplace safety.
• Performance Standards establish criteria for evaluating the performance of products or services. Examples
include the Energy Star program's standards for energy efficiency in consumer products and the National
Institute of Standards and Technology's (NIST) standards for accuracy in measurement.
• Management Standards provide guidelines for managing business operations and processes. Examples
include ISO's standards for environmental management systems and the Project Management Institute's
(PMI) standards for project management.
• Industry Standards are developed by industry associations and organizations to establish best practices for
specific industries. Examples include ECSA standards for engineering and the Society of Automotive
Engineers' (SAE) standards for automotive technology.
• Environmental Standards specify the environmental impact of a product or service and the steps that must
be taken to minimize that impact. These standards are often used in industries such as manufacturing,
where companies must comply with environmental regulations and reduce their environmental footprint.
• Occupational Health and Safety Standards specify the minimum requirements that must be met to ensure
the health and safety of workers. These standards are often used in industries such as construction, where
workers are exposed to hazardous materials and dangerous working conditions.
• Information Security Standards specify the minimum requirements that must be met to ensure the
security of data and information. These standards are often used in industries such as finance, where
sensitive information must be protected from cyber threats.
Developing and Implementing Standards
The process of developing and implementing standards typically involves several
steps:
• Identification of a Need: The first step in developing a standard is identifying a
need for it. This may involve conducting research, gathering input from
stakeholders, and identifying gaps or areas for improvement.
• Development of the Standard: Once the need for a standard has been
identified, the standard can be developed. This typically involves drafting the
standard, reviewing it, and revising it based on feedback from stakeholders.
• Approval of the Standard: Once the standard has been developed, it must be
approved by the relevant regulatory bodies, industry associations, or other
organizations.
• Review and Revision of the Standard: Standards are typically reviewed and
revised on a regular basis to ensure that they remain up-to-date and relevant.
• Approval: Once the standard has been revised, it is submitted for approval by
the relevant organization or government agency.
• Implementation of the Standard: Once the standard has been approved, it can
be implemented by businesses, organizations, and individuals. This may involve
training, education, and compliance monitoring.
Importance of Standards
Standards play an important role in ensuring that products, processes, and
services meet certain quality and safety requirements. Some specific
examples of the importance of standards are:
• Ensuring Product Quality: Product standards ensure that products meet
certain quality requirements, which can help to build consumer trust and
confidence in a brand.
• Ensuring Safety: Standards related to occupational health and safety, as
well as product safety, ensure that workers and consumers are protected
from harm.
• Facilitating Trade: Standards can help to facilitate trade by ensuring that
products meet certain quality requirements and are compatible with
international standards.
• Reducing Costs: Standards related to processes and procedures can help to
reduce costs by streamlining processes and reducing waste.
• Encouraging Innovation: Standards can encourage innovation by providing
a common framework for companies to compete on quality and
performance.
• Calibration is the process of comparing a measurement device or instrument
with a reference standard to determine its accuracy.
• The reference standard is typically a device that has been calibrated by a
laboratory or organization that specializes in calibration.
• This process is essential in a wide range of industries, such as manufacturing,
healthcare, and engineering, where accurate measurements are critical to
ensure quality, safety, and compliance with regulatory requirements.
• The calibration process involves comparing the readings obtained from the
measurement device with the readings obtained from the reference standard.
If the readings obtained from the measurement device are within an
acceptable range of the readings obtained from the reference standard, the
device is considered to be accurate.
• If the readings obtained from the measurement device are outside of this
range, adjustments may need to be made to the device to bring it into
compliance with the reference standard.
• Calibration may be performed on a periodic basis, such as annually or every
few years, depending on the industry and the specific requirements for the
measurement device.
• In some cases, calibration may need to be performed more frequently, such as
when a device has been subjected to unusual conditions or has undergone
repairs.
Types of Calibration
There are several types of calibration used to ensure the accuracy of different types of measurement
devices. Some common types of calibration include:
• Mechanical Calibration is used to ensure the accuracy of mechanical measurement devices, such as
torque wrenches, pressure gauges, and scales. This type of calibration typically involves comparing the
measurement device with a reference standard of known accuracy and adjusting the device as necessary
to bring it into compliance with the standard.
• Electrical Calibration is used to ensure the accuracy of electrical measurement devices, such as
multimeters, oscilloscopes, and voltmeters. This type of calibration typically involves comparing the
measurement device with a reference standard of known accuracy and adjusting the device as necessary
to bring it into compliance with the standard.
• Temperature Calibration is used to ensure the accuracy of temperature measurement devices, such as
thermometers and temperature probes. This type of calibration typically involves comparing the
measurement device with a reference standard of known accuracy at various temperature points and
adjusting the device as necessary to bring it into compliance with the standard.
• Pressure Calibration is used to ensure the accuracy of pressure measurement devices, such as pressure
gauges and transducers. This type of calibration typically involves comparing the measurement device
with a reference standard of known accuracy at various pressure points and adjusting the device as
necessary to bring it into compliance with the standard.
• Flow Calibration is used to calibrate flow measuring instruments, such as flow meters and mass flow
controllers. This type of calibration involves verifying the accuracy of the instrument's flow
measurements.
• Dimensional Calibration is used to ensure the accuracy of dimensional measurement devices, such as
calipers and micrometers.
• Optical Calibration is the process of verifying and adjusting the performance of optical instruments, such
as microscopes, telescopes, and cameras, to ensure that they produce accurate and reliable
measurements.
Steps in the Calibration Process
The calibration process typically involves the following steps:
• Preparation: The measuring instrument is prepared for calibration, including cleaning
and verifying that it is functioning correctly.
• Selection of Standard: A known standard is selected that is traceable to a national or
international standard. This standard is used as a reference measurement to compare the
measurements produced by the instrument being calibrated.
• Calibration Procedure: A calibration procedure is developed based on the type of
instrument being calibrated and the standard being used. The calibration procedure
specifies the equipment and procedures to be used, as well as the acceptance criteria for
the calibration.
• Comparison of measurements or Analysis: The measuring instrument is compared to a
reference standard to determine its accuracy. The reference standard is typically
calibrated to a higher level of accuracy than the measuring instrument being calibrated.
• Adjustment: If the measuring instrument is found to be inaccurate, it is adjusted to bring
it into alignment with the reference standard.
• Documentation: The calibration process is documented, including the date of calibration,
the results of the calibration, and any adjustments made to the measuring instrument.
• Verification: The calibration process is verified to ensure that the measuring instrument
is providing accurate and reliable measurements.
• Certification: Finally, the instrument is certified as being calibrated and accurate. This
certification may be in the form of a calibration certificate.
Importance of Calibration
Calibration is important for several reasons:
• Ensuring Accuracy: Calibration ensures that the measurements produced by an instrument
are accurate and reliable, which is important for making informed decisions and maintaining
quality control.
• Compliance or Complying with Standards: Many industries are subject to regulatory
standards that require instruments and devices to be calibrated on a regular basis.
Compliance with these standards is necessary to ensure the safety and efficacy of products
and services.
• Quality Control: Calibration is an essential part of quality control in manufacturing and
engineering. Accurate measurements are critical to ensure that products meet specifications
and perform as intended. Calibration helps to detect any deviations or errors in the
measuring instruments and correct them before they affect product quality.
• Improving Efficiency: Calibration can help to improve efficiency by identifying and correcting
measurement errors, which can reduce waste, improve product quality, and reduce costs.
• Reducing Liability: Calibration can help to reduce liability by ensuring that products and
services meet regulatory standards and are safe for use.
• Cost Savings: Calibration can help to reduce costs by minimizing the need for rework, scrap,
and warranty claims. Accurate measurements can help to identify problems early, allowing
them to be corrected before they become more serious and costly.
• Preserving Reputation: Calibration can help to preserve a company's reputation by ensuring
that its products and services are of high quality and meet industry standards.
Applications of Calibration
The importance of calibration can be seen in many industries where precise
measurements are necessary for quality control, safety, and compliance with
regulations. Calibration is essential in the following areas:
• Manufacturing: In manufacturing, precise measurements are necessary to
ensure that products meet quality standards. Calibration of measuring
instruments such as pressure gauges, thermometers, and flow meters
ensures that measurements are accurate, which helps to prevent defects
and improve product quality.
• Healthcare: In healthcare, accurate measurements are necessary for
patient safety and effective treatment. Calibration of instruments such as
blood pressure monitors, thermometers, and infusion pumps ensures that
medical professionals can rely on the accuracy of these instruments.
• Aerospace: In the aerospace industry, precise measurements are necessary
to ensure the safety and reliability of aircraft. Calibration of instruments
such as altimeters, airspeed indicators, and gyroscopes ensures that pilots
and flight crews can rely on the accuracy of these instruments.