Lecture 5

The meaning of the sentence

• Grammaticality, meaningfulness and
acceptability
• Variables in the functions of sentence
meaning
• Types of process
• Types of participants
• Types of circumstances 1
 The meaning of the sentence
• A sentence is the largest unit of grammatical
organization within which parts of speech (e.g. nouns,
verbs, adverbs, adjectives…) and grammatical classes
(e.g. word, phrase, clause) are said to function. In
English a sentence normally contains one independent
clause.
• The meaning of a sentence is not the sum of the
meanings of the words used in the sentence.
• It is more correct to regard it as a function of the
meanings of the words used in the sentence, modality,
and structural meaning signalled by the way words are
organized into sentences 2
 Sentence vs. utterance (revisited)
• An utterance is often regarded as any stretch of speech
before which and after which there is a pause.
• An utterance may be any piece of language such as a
sequence of sentences, or a sentence, or just a phrase,
or even a single word, used on a particular occasion.
• An utterance may be seen as a product of the process
of uttering.
• A sentence, on the other hand, may be defined as the
ideal underlying structure behind an utterance,
expressing a complete thought.
3
Grammaticality - Acceptability
Meaningfulness
• Grammaticality: A grammatical sentence is
one which is formed according to the rules of
grammar.

• Grammatical sentence:

There are 20 of us in the class.

• Ungrammatical sentence:

Do you angry? 4
 Meaningfulness
• The meaningfulness of a sentence is
conditioned by how well-informed that sentence
is semantically.
• Meaningful sentence
Scott is a lazy, stupid, disagreeable, stubborn
guy.
• Meaningless sentence
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
Thursday is in bed with Friday
5
 Grammaticality vs. Meaningfulness
• Most sentences we produce are
grammatical and meaningful
Nothing is gonna change my love for you.

• A sentence which is grammatically

correct is not necessarily meaningful
It asks a pile of rubbish to clean the ant.
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 Acceptability

• In grammatical sense

• In semantic sense

7
 In grammatical sense

• Some sentences are unacceptable

because it is not grammatically possible.

e.g. I love speak but I think it is so difficult

to get fluency.

8
 In semantic sense
 Suitability to social etiquette
• After the battle, the  Unacceptable
enemies all passed away.

• You are my dog.  Unacceptable in Greece

Acceptable in Britain
 Rationality/ logical coherence

• She died even though she  Unacceptable

fell down from the 100th floor. 9
 Variables in the function of
sentence meaning
1. Structural meaning
2. Representational meaning
3. Interpersonal meaning
4. Textual meaning

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 Structural meaning

• Structural meaning is the kind of meaning

that results from a particular arrangement
of the parts of the sentence.
• E.g.:
- The mantte wernnted a yob
- My fueak liauded me to doen
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 Representational, interpersonal
and textual meaning
• According to Halliday, the semantic structure of the
sentence incorporates three components:
representational, interpersonal and textual.
• He uses the term “semantic function” or just
“function” to refer to them.
• We understand that this is just another way of
representing the meaning of the sentence. Thus,
“meaning” and “function” are interchangeable in
this context.
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 Representational meaning
• Can be defined in terms of experiential and logical
functions.
1. The experiential function: is to communicate ideas
• It is the main function by which a speaker expresses
the content elements of his utterance, by referring to
people, objects, states of affairs, events, qualities,
places, actions and circumstances, all of which are
parts of the world we live in.
• E.g. John invited Susan to go to the cinema with him
last night.
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2. The logical function: relates ideas to each
other on an equal or subordinate basis
e.g.
• The bus was crowded, and I had to stand
all the way. (equal)
• We all believe that working hard is the key to
success.
• Notes: The respresentational meaning in
Halliday’s terminology correspond to a much
used but troublesome notion of “proposition”
that we will discuss in detail in another lecture 14
 Interpersonal function
1. To establish and maintain social relations.
This function can be manifested in various
forms indicating functions such as:
- Good morning.
- Have a nice day.
- Thank you very much.
- I am sorry.

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 Interpersonal function
2. To influence people behaviour and get
things done. This function may be called the
instrumental function, that is influencing
people’s behaviour and getting things done.
For example
- Could you pass me the wine? (Request)
- Why was she late? (Enquiry)
- Don’t do that again. (Warning)
- If you keep doing this, I’ll… (Threat)
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 Interpersonal function

3. To express the speaker’s feelings, attitudes

and opinions towards, or the assessment of
the representational content of the sentence
via the use of modal verbs and adverbs. For
example:
- What she said may be right
- You must be feeling hunger by now
- This is probably right
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 Textual function
• The textual function or meaning is to create texts. It
is this function that helps to give texts coherence
and cohesion. For example:
• The healing power of maggots is not new. Human
beings have discovered it several times. The Maya
are said to have used maggots for therapeutic
purposes 1000 years ago. As early as the 16 th
century, European doctors noticed that soldiers
with maggots-infested wounds healed well.
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More on the representational meaning
• According to Halliday, the experiental component
of the representational meaning provides an
account of the underlying content of a sentence
or utterance. It handles within its scope:
a. processes: actions, events, states, relations
b. Participating entities: persons, objects,
abstractions
c. Circumstances:time, place, reasons, conditions,
results … which are associated with the process
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More on the representational meaning
• The relationship between processes, participants,
and their circumstances are expressed through
what Halliday terms “transitivity network”.
Transitivity really means “going through” or
“extending to another entity”.
E.g. Mary kicked the dog this morning
• The participant “Mary” performs a doing “kicking”,
which is directed at the goal “the dog” under the
circumstances “this morning”
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 In terms of transitivity
• Clauses may be organized into two types
1. The transitivity (sentence) pattern: the most
prominent roles are “actor” and “goal”, which
correspond to “agentive subject” and “affected
object” in traditional grammar.
e.g. The storm destroyed the house.
OR: “attributor” and “attributant” if the process
is one of ascription (attribution)
e.g. Bill is a successful businessman.
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 In terms of transitivity
2. The ergative (sentences) pattern: the central
roles are the “causer” of the process, and the
“affected”, i.e. the participant affected by the
process.
e.g. Everyone likes the play
= The play causes everyone to like it.

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 In terms of complementation
1. Intensive sentences: are those concerned with
ascription (attribution)
e.g. John is smart
Mary is the most beautiful girl
2. Extensive transitive sentences: concerned with
action process
a. Effective: the action is goal-directed or targeted
at another object called goal. This means that the
sentence has to involve at least two participants.
e.g. I bought a car
Some sentences may have three participants
e.g. I gave her a flower 23
In terms of complementation
b. Descriptive: involving a non-directed action
since the sentence is associated with just one
participant.
e.g. The recruits marched
c. Nuclear: associated with either one or two
participants.
e.g. John opened the door
The door opened
The door was opened by John 24
 The process

• The concept of process represents the possible

world as consisting of goings-on such as doing,
happening, feeling and being.
• According to Halliday, in English, the processes
are construed by the transitivity system.

25
 Types of processes
• Material processes: express our outer experiences
• Mental processes: express our inner experiences
• Relational processes: connect our experiences
• Behavioral processes (between material processes
and mental processes): represent outer manifestations
of our inner workings
• Verbal processes (between mental and relational
processes): represent symbolic relationship
constructed in human consciousness and enacted in
the form of language.
• Existential processes (between the material and
relational processes): concerning with existence 26
 Material processes
 Definition: Material processes are those that
express our outer experiences.
 Characteristics: Material processes may involve
one or two entities: an actor + a goal:

 If there is only one entity, it is the ACTOR.

e.g. The lion sprang
Jack fell down
Jack got up
Jack went home
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 Material processes
 If there are two entities, they are the ACTOR and
the GOAL. In this case:
+ the actor can do something to the goal.
e.g. John broke the glass
The lion caught the tourist
The mechanic repaired my car
+ the actor can create or bring about the goal
e.g. He has built a fortune along the way.
They are building a new school here
Jane is writing a letter 28
 Material processes
- Material processes are not necessarily
concrete, but can be abstract
e.g. The mayor resigned
The president dissolved the
Parliament
- We can ask about or “probe” material
processes by using the verb “do”
e.g. What did the lion do?
What is Jane doing?
What did the mayor do? 29
 Mental processes
 Definition: Mental processes are those that express
our inner experiences. Mental processes involve two
entities: a SENSER (the conscious being that feels,
sees or thinks) and a PHENOMENON (that which is
“sensed”, felt, thought or seen.
e.g. Mary liked the gift
No-one believed his story
 Characteristics:
1. In a clause of mental process, there is always one
participant who is human or human-like. This is the
SENSER, the one who senses, feels, thinks or
perceives.
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 Mental processes
• On the contrary, in material process, no participant is
required to be human, and the distinction between
conscious and non-conscious beings simply plays no
part.
2. With regards to the other main element, namely the
one that is felt, thought or perceived, it may be a
person, a thing or a fact.
e.g. Jane saw the stars
Jane saw that the stars had come out
3. The verb in a mental process clause is usually used
in the present simple tense.
e.g. She likes the gift
Do you know the city? 31
 Mental processes
4. Mental processes can usually be realized in either
direction with either the senser or the phenomenon
that is being sensed being the subject.
Like type Please type
I like it It pleases me
I fear it It frightens me
I wonder at it It amazes me
I don’t understand it It puzzles me
I enjoy it It delights me
I mind it It upsets me
I admire it It impresses me
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 Mental processes
5. Mental processes are processes of feeling, thinking
and seeing. They are not kinds of doing, and cannot
be probed or substituted by “do”.
e.g. What did John do? He ran away (material)
What did Mary do with the gift? She sold
it.

John knew the answer.

(not: What John did was know the answer)
Mary liked the gift.
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(not: What did Mary do with the gift)
 Mental processes
 Classification:Mental processes can be
categorized into three principle sub-types:
+ perception (seeing, hearing, noticing, etc.)
e.g.: He notices it.
+ affection (liking, fearing, hating, etc.)
e.g: I fear that she would be soon corrupted.
+ cognition (thinking, knowing, realizing, believing
etc.)
e.g: I knew it a long time ago.
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 Relational processes
 Definition: Relational processes are those that
connect our experiences. They are processes of
being.
 Characteristics: In a relational clause, there are
two parts to the “being”: something is being said to
‘be’ something else. In other words, a relation is
being set up between two entities.
e.g. Jane is beautiful
Tomorrow is my birthday
Peter has a piano 35
 Relational processes
• The English system of relational processes operates
with three main types
1. Intensive: “x is a”
2. Circumstantial: “x is at a” (where ‘is at’ stands for
“is at, in, on, for, with, about, along, etc.’)
3. Possessive: “x has a”

• Each of these comes in two distinct modes:

a. Attributive: “a is an attribute of x”
b. Identifying: “a is the identity of x” 36
 Relational processes
Mode Attribute Identifying
Type

Intensive Sarah is wise Tom is the leader

The leader is Tom

Circumstantial The fair is on a Mon. Tomorrow is the 10th

The 10th is tomorrow

possessive Peter has a piano The piano is Peter’s

Peter’s is the piano
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 Intensive processes - Attribute
• In the attributive mode, an entity (the CARRIER) has
some quality (ATTRIBUTE) ascribed or attributed to it.
e.g. Today’s weather is going to be warm
The minister didn’t seem sure of himself
Your story sounds complete nonsense
Mice are timid creatures
• Verbs realizing the Process include: become, turn
(into), grow (into), get, go, remain, stay (as), keep,
seem, appear, qualify as, turn out, end up (as), look,
sound, smell, fee, taste (like), be, feel.
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 Intensive processes - Identifying
• In this identifying mode, some thing (the IDENTIFIED)
has an identity (IDENTIFIER) assigned to it.
The deadliest spider in Australia are the funnel webs
Today’s meeting represents the last chance for a
compromise
Mr. Garrick played Hamlet
• Verbs realizing the Process include: play, act as,
function as, serve as, mean, indicate, suggest, imply,
show, mark, reflect, equal, add up to, make, comprise,
feature, include, represent, constitute, form, exemplify,
illustrate, express, signify, realize, stand for, mean,
spell, be, become, remain.
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 Circumstantial - Attribute
1. Circumstance as attribute: Here the Attribute is a
prepositional phrase and the circumstantial relation is
expressed by the preposition (about, in, like, with…)
e.g. My story is about a poor shepherd boy
Pussy’s in the well
2. Circumstance as process: Here the Attribute is a
nominal group and the circumstance is expressed by
the verb (concern, last, weigh, cost)
e.g. My story concerns a poor shepherd boy
The fair lasted a week
The fish weighs 2 pounds
Your ticket cost fifty dollars
40
 Circumstantial - Identifying
1. Circumstance as participants: In this type it is the
participants (identified and Identifier) that are
circumstantial elements of time, place and so on. The
relation between the participants is simply one of
sameness.
e.g. Tomorrow is the tenth
The best way to go there is by train
The real reason is that you are scared
2. Circumstance as process: In this type, it is not the
participants that are the expression of time, place or
others, but the Process:
e.g. The fair takes up the whole day
Applause followed her act
41
Fred accompanied his wife
 Possessive - Attribute
1. The possessive relationship may be encoded as the
Attribute. In this case the Attribute takes the form of a
possessive nominal group.
e.g. The piano is Peter’s

2. The possessive relationship may be encoded as the

Process. In this case, either the Possessor is the
Carrier and the possessed is the attribute as in
e.g. Peter has a piano
or the possessed is the carrier and the possessor is
the attribute as in
e.g. The piano belongs to Peter
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 Possessive - Identifying
1. Possession as participants: Here the participants
embody the notion of possession, one signifying
property of the possessor, the other signifying the
thing possessed.
e.g. The piano is Peter’s

2. Possession as process: Here the possession is

encoded as a process, typically realised by the verb
“to own”
e.g. Peter owns the piano
43
 Behavioral processes
 Definition: Behavioral processes are those
describing physiological and psychological behavior
like coughing, breathing, smiling, dreaming, and
staring. They are partly like the material and partly
like the mental processes.
 Characteristics:
The participant who is behaving, labelled
BEHAVER, is typically a conscious being, like the
Senser, but the Process is grammatically more like
one of doing.
e.g. Jane is smiling 44
 Classification
a. Processes of consciousness (near mental
processes): represented as forms of behaviour:
look, watch, stare, listen, think, worry, dream
b. Verbal processes as behaviour (near verbal
processes): chatter, grumble, talk
c. Physiological processes manifesting states of
consciousness: cry, laugh, smile, frown, sigh,
snarl, whine
d. Other physiological processes: breath, cough,
faint, yarn, sleep
e. Bodily postures and pastimes (near material
processes): sing, dance, lie down, sit (down/up)45
 Verbal processes
 Definition: verbal processes are processes of
saying. They represent symbolic relationships
constructed in human consciousness and enacted
in the form language.
 Characteristics:
• Verbal processes are Processes of saying (tell,
insult, praise, slander, abuse, flatter, promise, etc.)
• They involve four entities: a sayer, a verbiage, a
target, and a receiver.
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 The RECEIVER

• The RECEIVER is the one to whom the

saying is directed.
e.g. Tell me the whole truth
Did you repeat that to your parents?
Describe to the court the scene of the
accident.

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 The VERBIAGE
• The VERBIAGE is the function that correspond to what
is said. It may be the content of what is said as in
e.g. Can you describe the apartment to me?
The manager will outline his plan of
campaign
The mystery’s never been explained.
It may be the name of the saying as in:
e.g. Let me ask you a question
Now, don’t you say another word.
They were speaking Arabic
He made a statement
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 The TARGET
• The Target is the entity that is targeted by the
process of saying.
e.g. She always praised him to her friends
Please don’t insult my intelligence
• Verbs that accept a Target include: praise, insult,
abuse, slander, flatter, blame, criticise.

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 Existential processes
 Definition: existential processes are those that are
concerned with existence.
 Characteristics:
• Represents something that exists or happens
• Intermediate between material and relational
processes
• Two entities: the EXISTENT and the process
e.g.: Once upon a time, there lived a King
who had a beautiful daughter.
There comes a huge man 50
 Existential processes
• Verbs that commonly occur in existential
processes include: exist, remain, arise,
occur, come about, happen, take place,
follow, ensue, sit, stand, lie, hang, rise,
stretch, emerge, grow, erupt, flourish,
prevail

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 Participants
• The participant functions listed in the Table are
those that are directly involved in the process: the
one that does, behaves, senses, says, is or exists,
together with the complementary function where
there is one - the one that is done to, sensed etc.
• There are other participant functions in English
clause, also specific to each particular process
type. However, it is possible to group these
together into two general functions common to all
clauses: The Beneficiary and the Range
52
 Beneficiary
• The beneficiary is the one two whom or for whom the
process is said to take place. It appears in material
and verbal processes, and occasionally in relational.
1. In a material process, the Beneficiary is either
Recipient or Client. The Recipient is one that goods
are given to; the Client is one that services are done
for. The preposition is “to” with Recipient and “for”
with Client.
e.g. She gave John the pparcel
She gave the parcel to John
He painted John a picture
He painted a picture for John
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2. In a verbal process, the Beneficiary is the one
who is being addressed (the Receiver)
e.g. John told Mary a story
John asked Mary a question
John notifited Mary of the decision
3. There are also few relational processes (attribute)
containing a Beneficiary. We shall just refer to this
as BENEFICIARY
e.g. She make him a good wife
It cost him a pretty penny
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 Range
• The range is the element that specifies the range or
scope of the process.
e.g. Jane sang a song
Do you play croquet with the Queen
today?
• This is the meaning behind the classical category of
cognate object (e.g. ‘song’ and ‘sing’). However,
cognateness is not a necessary feature. Most Range
elements in English are not cognate to the verb even if
they are as close in meaning as, for example: ‘game’
and ‘play’.
• A Range may occur in material, behavioural, mental
and verbal processes. 55
 Range in material or
behavioural processes
• The range either expresses the domain over
which the process take place or expresses the
process itself.
1. The range indicates the domain over which the
process takes place. In this case it is an entity
which exists independently of the process.
e.g. Mary climbed the mountain
John played the piano
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 Range in material or
behavioural processes
2. The range may not be an entity but rather another
name for the process.
e.g. John and Mary played tennis
John sang a song
John had a bath
John did some work
John made a mistake
John took a rest
John gave a smile
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 Range in metal processes
• In mental processes the concept of Range helps to
understand the structure we have already
identified, that of Senser and Phenomenon. It is not
an additional element, but an interpretation of the
Phenomenon in one of its structural configurations.
e.g. I enjoyed the play very much
I understand your problems
John knows the answer

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 Range in verbal processes
• In verbal processes, the range is the
Verbiage.
e.g. Describe the apartment to me
She told a story

59
 The circumstances
• This component is related to the process. They
can occur in all types of processes. Most are
realized by prepositional phrases; however,
they can be clauses as well. The main types of
circumstances are:
1. Time:
e.g. She arrived home at 9 o’clock
2. Place:
e.g. I met her at a small restaurant
3. Condition:
e.g. If she comes, I’ll go
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 The circumstances
4. Concession:
e.g. In spite of her parents’ objection …
5. Result:
e.g. I was caught in a sudden shower, so I
was soaked
6. Manner:
e.g. She beat her son with a ruler
7. Attending circumstances:
e.g. As everyone is here, let’s start
8. Cause:
e.g. Because of the rain, the train was late.
9. Purpose:
e.g. She is out for lunch now. 61
 Circumstantial in Halliday’s view
Type Specific categories (Sub-types)
1 Extent Distance, duration
2 Location Place, time
3 Manner Means, quality, comparison
4 Cause Reason, purpose, behalf
5 Contingency Condition, concession, default
6 Accompaniment Comitation, addition
7 Role Guise, product
8 Matter
9 Angle
62
1. and 2. Circumstantials of Extent and Location
Spatial Temporal

Extent, incl. Distance Duration

Interval Walk (for seven miles) Stay (for) two hours
Stop every 10 yards Pause every ten min’
Frequency
Knock three times

Location Place Time

Work in the kitchen Get up at six o’clock

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3. Manner. The circumstantial element of Manner
comprises three subcategories: means, quality,
comparison
a. Means refers to the means whereby a process takes
place. It is typically expresses by a prepositional
phrase with “by” or “with”.
e.g. The pig was beaten with a stick
b. Quality is typically expressed by an adverbial group
with -ly adverbs as Head
e.g. It was snowing heavily
c. Comparison is typically expressed by a prep phrase
with “like” or “unlike”
e.g. It went through my head like an earthquake
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4. Cause: The circumstantial element of Cause also
comprises of three subcategories: Reason, Purpose,
Behalf.
a. Reason: represents the reason for which a process
takes place, what causes it.
e.g. I love her because she is rich
b. Purpose: represents the purpose for which an action
takes place, the intention behind it.
e.g. She went out for lunch
c. Behalf: represents the entity, typically a person, on
whose behalf or for whose sake the action is
undertaken.
e.g. I am writing on behalf of Aunt Jane
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5. Contingency: Again there are three subtypes:
Condition, concession, Default
a. Condition: expresses the condition under which a
process takes place
e.g. In the event of a typhoon open all windows
b. Concession: expressed by in spite of, despite
e.g. Despite the rain, the excursion was a great
success.
c. Default: expressed by in the absence of, in default of
e.g. In the absence of further evidence, we shall
give them the benefit of doubt.
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6. Accompaniment: This element represents the
meanings of “and”, “or”, “not” as circumstantials.
e.g. Fred came with/without Tom
Jane set out with her umbrella
Fred came instead of Tom
7. Role: This category includes the subcategories of
Guise and Product.
a. Guise: Corresponds to the interrogative “what as?”
e.g. I came here as a friend
They leave the place untidy by way of
protest
b. Product: corresponds to the interrogative “what into?”
the meaning of “become”
e.g. Aren’t you growing into a big girl? 67
8. Matter: Matter is related to verbal processes. It is
the circumstantial equivalent of Verbiage, ‘that
which is describe, referred to, narrated etc…’.
The interrogative is “What about?”
e.g. The company kept quiet on the subject
They talked of many things
9. Angle: is also related to verbal processes, but in
this case to the Sayer.
e.g. According to a government spokesman,
order has now been restored.
They are guilty in the eyes of the law.

68
 The interpersonal meaning
• Halliday’s term “interpersonal” embraces largely
what is collectively expressed by a more common
term “modality”
• Modality expresses the attitude and opinion of the
speaker toward the representational content of the
sentence.
• However, “attitude” and “opinion” in this sense has
little to do with the emotional states that a person
undergoes.
• In fact, the interpersonal meaning has to do with
the function of speech or “illocutionary force”
• Then the meaning of a sentence is the function of
P (Proposition) and F (illocutionary force) 69
 Modality in English
• English modality can be expressed either lexically or
grammatically.
1. Lexicalisation: Modality is expressed by means of lexical
items like modal verbs or modal adverbs or some lexical
verbs: really, must, certainly, can…)
e.g. She is certainly the best
You must finish the report by
tomorrow.
1. Grammaticalisation: Modality is expressed in the
opposition of forms (mood)
e.g. Come on in
If I were you, I’d …
It rained very hard last night.
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