CHAPTER 3
Bioenergetics
BIOENERGETICS TERMINOLOGY:
⦿Bioenergetics: Flow of energy within a
biological system (conversion of food to
chemical energy).
⦿Catabolism: The breakdown of large molecules
into smaller molecules (releases energy).
⦿Anabolism: The building of large molecules from
smaller molecules (energy investment).
⦿Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP): “Currency of
bodily functions” Intermediate molecules
responsible for driving anabolic reactions.
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ATP
⦿Adenosine Triphosphate
⦿Adenine
◼ Nitrogen-containing base
⦿Ribose
◼ 5 carbon sugar
⦿3 Phosphate Groups
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ATP
⦿ When the third phosphate group of ATP is removed by
hydrolysis, a substantial amount of free energy is released
◼ A phosphate is cleaved from ATP to form ADP + Pi
◼ Another phosphate can be cleaved from ADP to form AMP + Pi
⦿ Hydrolysis
◼ Breakdown of a substance by the insertion of water molecules
between its bonds
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3 ENERGY SYSTEMS
1. Phosphagen System
◼ Anaerobic
◼ ATP-PCr system
Occurs in Cytosol of cell
◼ ATP supplied the fastest but
with very limited amounts
2. Glycolytic System
◼ Anaerobic / aerobic
◼ ATP supplied FAST with limited amounts
◼ By-products are produced
Occurs in Mitochondria of
3. Oxidative System cell
◼ Aerobic
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PHOSPHAGEN SYSTEM
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PHOSPHAGEN SYSTEM
⦿Provides ATP for short-term, high-intensity
activities but is active at the START of ALL
activities
◼ Stored in small amounts
⦿Relies on chemical reactions between ATP and
creatine phosphate
◼ [Myosin] Adenosine tri-phosphatase (ATPase)
◼ Creatine kinase (CK)
? Increases the re-synthesis of
ATP from creatine phosphate
? Creatine supplementation and
exercise Department
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GLYCOLYSIS
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GLYCOLYSIS:
⦿Following the Phosphagen system, our primary source
of ATP comes from glycolysis
⦿Breakdown of carbohydrates (either glycogen or
glucose delivered in the blood) to resynthesize ATP
⦿10 reactions in the cytoplasm of the cell
⦿Glycolysis occurs at 2 speeds: fast and slow
The fate of pyruvate is controlled by the energy
demands within the cell!!
If energy must be transferred at a high rate, such as during resistance training, pyruvate
is primarily converted to lactate. If energy demand is not as high and oxygen is present Department
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in sufficient quantities in the cell, pyruvate can be further oxidized in the mitochondria. Exercise
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REGULATION OF
GLYCOLYSIS
⦿ Rate of glycolysis is
INCREASED by (signs of higher
ATP hydrolysis):
◼ Increasing cellular ADP
◼ Inorganic Phosphate (Pi)
◼ Ammonia (AA catabolism)
◼ Decreasing intra-muscular pH
⦿ AMP is the strongest
stimulator of glycolysis
⦿ Rate of glycolysis is
DECREASED by usually present
at rest):
Increasing of:
⦿ cellular ATP Department
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⦿ Creatine phosphate
Exercise
⦿ Citrate Science
REGULATION OF GLYCOLYSIS' RATE
1. Glycogen catabolism: Glycolysis slows if glycogen
cannot convert to glucose (phosphorylase).
2. Hexokinase
◼ Glucose → G-6-P
3. Phosphofructokinase (PFK): most important
regulator of Glycolysis
◼ Rate-limiting step
◼ F6P → Fructose 1,6 bisphosphate Department
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LACTIC ACID AND BLOOD LACTATE
⦿ Lactate
⦿ End product of fast glycolysis
◼ Can be used as an energy source in muscles
◼ Oxidation
◼ Gluconeogenesis
⦿ Gluconeogenesis
⦿ The formation of from NON-CHO
sources
⦿ Blood lactate clearance is indicative of an individual’s
ability to recover
Cori Cycle
◼ Can be utilized by the muscle fiber itself
as energy…direct
◼ Transported via the blood to the liver for
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conversion to glucose…indirect of Health and
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LACTATE THRESHOLD
⦿Lactate Threshold (LT)
◼ Exercise workload at which blood lactate begins an
abrupt increase above baseline concentrations
⚫ Production > Clearance
◼ Increasing reliance on anaerobic mechanisms
◼ 50-60% of VO2max in untrained
◼ 70-80% of VO2max in trained
⦿Aerobically trained individuals have increased
mitochondrial content
◼ Greater ATP via aerobic mechanisms
◼ Allowing one to perform at a higher % of VO 2max Department
without as much lactate accumulation of Health and
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OBLA
⦿Onset of blood lactate accumulation
◼ Occurs when the concentration of blood lactate
reaches ~4 mmol/L
◼ Second inflection
point in the lactate
accumulation curve
◼ Thought to occur due
to the recruitment of
larger, more anaerobic
type II muscle fibers
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BLOOD LACTATE
⦿Normal values
◼ 0.5 – 2.2 mmol/L
⦿Peak values
◼ 15-20 mmol/L (can be higher in tissue)
◼ Occurs within 5 minutes following cessation of
exercise…
⦿Production increases with increasing intensity
◼ Muscle fiber dependent
⦿Blood lactate returns to resting levels within an
~hour after exercise
◼ Light exercise can augment clearance rates Department
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FATIGUE: LACTATE, H+, & PI
⦿High-intensity exercise increases reliance of
anaerobic metabolism
⦿H+ ↑ (causing acidosis)
◼ Reduces activity of enzyme myosin ATPase
⦿Lactate ↑ (taken back up, not that bad)
◼ Can be converted into glucose through
gluconeogenesis
◼ Can be cleared by oxidation in the muscle
⦿Pi ↑
◼ Interfere w/ actin-myosin binding
◼ Ca2+ release/uptake from sarcoplasmic Department
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Robergs et al. 2004
OXIDATIVE (AEROBIC) SYSTEM
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OXIDATIVE SYSTEM:
⦿Primary source of ATP at:
◼ rest
◼ aerobic, endurance activities
⦿Primarily use of fat and carbohydrates as energy
substrates
◼ At rest
◼ 70% of ATP produced from fats
◼ 30% carbohydrates
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KREBS CYCLE
⦿8 reaction cycle initiated by pyruvate or fatty acids
⦿Krebs cycle’s primary role
◼ Breakdown the acetyl group of acetyl CoA and release
CO2
◼ Also transfers H+ to coenzymes NAD+ or FAD2+ for use in
the electron transport chain
⦿NOTE: NO ATP is formed directly from the Krebs
cycle
◼ However one GTP is formed, which indirectly results in
one ATP formation Department
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How many pyruvate enter
Krebs? 2
For each pyruvate:
How many NADH are formed?
3
ATP How many FADH2 are
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How many
1 ATP? Science
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
⦿The coenzymes (FADH2 & NADH) are used to
produce ATP in the ETC
◼ As coenzymes go down the ETC, they release protons
allowing the formation of a concentration gradient
◼ Oxygen grabs the remaining protons at complex IV
◼ 1 molecule of NADH produces 3 ATP
◼ 1 molecule of FADH2 produces 2 ATP
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GLUCOSE ENERGY YIELD
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FAT OXIDATION
⦿ Triglycerides can also be utilized by the Krebs cycle and ETC
⦿ Triglycerides are broken down from localized stores or adipose
tissue and transported through the blood to the working muscles
⦿ Triglyceride decomposition results in the release of glycerol and 3
fatty acid chains
⦿ Fatty acids are transported to the mitochondria and undergo beta
oxidation
◼ Series of reactions that break down the fatty acid to acetyl-CoA
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PROTEIN OXIDATION
⦿Not a significant source of energy
◼ During very prolonged activity it may account for 3% to 18% of
energy
⦿Proteins are broken down into their constituent
amino acids
◼ gluconeogenesis
◼ Or may become Krebs cycle intermediates
◼ Or may be converted to pyruvate
⦿Nitrogen-containing waste products (e.g. ammonia) are
formed throughout this process and are eliminated as
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◼ NOTE: Ammonia is VERY toxic to the body so its removal is essential Exercise
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AEROBIC SYSTEM REGULATION
⦿ With so many steps within aerobic metabolism, there are many
limiting factors
⦿ Anything upstream from the Krebs cycle may slow down oxidative
metabolism
⦿ Glycogen breakdown, glycolysis, lipolysis, etc.
⦿ Once in the Krebs cycle, the major rate limiting step is isocitrate
to α-Ketoglutarate
⦿ Isocitrate dehydrogenase (is stimulated by ADP and inhibited by AT)
⦿ All steps within the Krebs cycle that result in the production of
NADH or FADH2 can be limited by NAD+ or FAD2+ concentrations
⦿ All processes within aerobic metabolism can be slowed by high
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ENERGY PRODUCTION AND CAPACITY
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SUBSTRATE DEPLETION AND REPLETION
⦿Phosphagens
◼ Depletion
◼ Creatine phosphate can be greatly depleted (50% -
70%) within the first 5 – 30 seconds of exercise
◼ Muscle ATP concentrations do not vary as greatly
since the most fatiguing exercises do not decrease
concentrations by more than 60% of resting
concentrations
◼ Repletion
◼ Complete resynthesis of ATP occurs within 3-5
minutes
◼ PCr repletion occurs within 8 minutes Department
◼ Repletion of ATP during rest commonly occurs
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SUBSTRATE DEPLETION AND REPLETION
⦿Glycogen
◼ Depletion
◼ ~300-400 grams of glycogen is stored within
skeletal muscle
◼ 70-100 grams in the liver
◼ Glycogenolysis increases with increases in intensity
? Almost total glycogen depletion can occur
◼ Repletion
◼ Repletion of glycogen can occur within 6 hours
◼ CHO intake of 1.0-1.2 g/kg has been reported to be
ideal
◼ If ingestion is delayed by 2 hours then glycogen Department
repletion can take over 24 hours of Health and
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OXYGEN DEFICIT vs EPOC (or O2 Debt)
⦿Remember
◼ There is only small to moderate relationships
between the oxygen deficit and EPOC
◼ Oxygen deficit may influence the SIZE of EPOC Department
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? However, the two are NOT equal Exercise
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CONCLUSION
⦿Which energy system is used to fuel the exercise
being performed is determined
◼ primarily by exercise intensity
◼ secondarily by the duration of the exercise bout
⦿Adaptations that
occur are
DEPENDENT
upon the
metabolic stress
that is placed on
the body during
exercise sessions
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Romjin, et al. (1993) Exercise
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