4.

DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND WATER RESOURCE OF ETHIOPIA & THE

HORN

4.1 Introduction
Earth

• Water(71%),
 97.5% salt-seas & Oceans
 2.5% fresh water(0.4%surface,
68.7% glaciers, 30.1% ground
• Land (29%)
water,0.8 % frost)
 Only around 0.7 % of the total
land mass of Ethiopia is
covered by water bodies due
to rugged topography
a) Drainage

 the flow of water through well-defined channel.

 A river system begins at a place called the source or headwater and ends at a
point called mouth

b)Drainage pattern (e.g Dendritic, trellis/Parallel, radial, centriputal etc)

 It is arrangement or flow direction of the main river & its tributary

 The general patterns of major river basins in Ethiopia are determined by

topographical structures
c)Drainage system

 Branched network of river/streams channels (made up of principal river & its

tributaries) together with the adjacent land slopes
 It is outcome of
 structure of rocks
 topography
 slope
 amount & the periodicity of the flow.
 A river system begins at a source or headwater and ends at mouth.

 a drainage system is the overall network of rivers and streams in a specific area, while a drainage

pattern is the specific arrangement or configuration of these watercourses within that area.

 Ethiopia possesses three broadly classified drainage systems

 Western,
 South eastern &
 Rift Valley drainage Systems.
 The general drainage system of major river basins in Ethiopia are determined
by topographical structures i.e

 outward sloping of the Western and South eastern plateaus

 structural formation of the Rift Valley with its in-ward-sloping

escarpments resulting mainly in an inland drainage system.

 Faults and joints that structurally influence part of the courses of

many rivers
Drainage system
d) Drainage basin (catchment area)

 topographic region towards which a river & its tributaries collect both the
surface runoff and subsurface flow

 It is bounded by and separated from other river basins by a water divide or

topographic divide.
Drainage Basins of Ethiopia(CSA )
4.2. The Major Drainage Systems

1.The Western Ethiopia Drainage Systems (60 % of the annual water flow)

 Largest of all drainage systems draining 40 % of the total area of the country and
carry 60 % of the annual water flow

 Comprises 4 major river basins namely the Tekeze, Abay, Baro-Akobo, Ghibe
(Omo).

 Unlike other river basins in the system, the Ghibe (Omo) flows southward.

 The Abay, Tekeze and Baro flow westward ultimately joining the Nile river which
finally ends at Mediterranean Sea.
a) Abay river

 largest river both in volumetric discharge and coverage in the western drainage
systems

 Abay river carries 65 % of the annual water flow of the region.

 Abay river basin covers an area of 199,812 km2, covering parts of Amhara,
Oromia and Benishangul-Gumuz regional states.

 It rises from Lake Tana (from Sekela, Choke mountain) flows about 1,450 km
and joins the White Nile in Khartoum, Sudan to form the Nile River.

 More than 60 streams drain the Abay within elevation ranging between 500 - 4261
m.a.s.l. The largest of these is Ghilgel Abay (LittleAbay).
b) Tekeze river (Atbara in Sudan)

 Tekeze and its tributaries, carrying 12 % of the annual water flow of the region drains
82,350 Km2 of land surface.

 The basin has two main tributaries (Angereb & Goang) which rises in the central highlands
of Ethiopia

c) Baro-Akobo (Akobo is tributary of Baro)

 has an area of 75,912 km2, covering parts of the Benishangul-Gumuz, Gambella, Oromia, and
SNNPR.

 Baro & Akobo called Sobat River in South Sudan

 join the white Nile in Sudan

d) Ghibe river

 The Ghibe river empties into the Chew-Bahir (south direction) at the mouth of Lake Turkana
thereby forming an inland drainage.
2)The S.E Drainage Systems(25% water flow of Ethiopia)

 Wabishebelle

 largest of all Ethiopian rivers in catchment area (area of 202,697 km2)

 drains parts of Oromia, SNNPR, & Somali regions

 Genale

 171,042 km2 catchment drains parts of Oromia, Harari & the Somali regions.

 has fewer tributaries but carries more water than Wabishebelle, reaches the Indian Ocean.

3)The Rift Valley Drainage System/Inland drainage system

 The RV drainage system is an area of
 small amount of rainfall,
 high evaporation and
 small catchment area.
 No one general flow direction, as the streams flow in all directions.

 The Awash River

 originates from Shewan plateau in central highlands of Ethiopia

 flows 1250 kms long in NE direction & ended in small lakes & marshy
area ; the largest of which is Lake Abe on the Ethio-Djibouti border.

 covers parts of the Amhara, Oromia, Afar, Somali, Dire Dawa, and
Addis Ababa City Administration

 It is the most utilized river

 Awash river basin cover a catchment area of 114,123 km2

 Small streams in RV drainage system include

 Meki and Katar rivers flow into L. Ziway

 Bilate river into L. Abaya

 Segen river into Chew Bahir

 In addition, some of these lakes are interconnected.

 Lakes Ziway drain into Lake Abijiata through the small streams
of Bulbula
 Langano drain into Lake Abijiata through the small streams of
Horocolo
4.3. Water Resources: Surface water (Rivers, Lakes) and Sub-Surface Water
4.3.1. Surface water

 The Ethiopian Rivers

 General Characteristics of Ethiopian Rivers

 Originate from the highlands(1500m.a.s.l) & flow on steep slopes having
steep profiles
 Are trans-boundary,
 extreme seasonal fluctuation b/n wet and dry season
 have rapids, waterfalls, cuts, steep-sided river valleys and deep gorges
along their course,
 Some serve as boundaries, both international and domestic administrative
units.
 Altogether, Ethiopian rivers form 12 major watersheds
 Table 4.1: Data on major Ethiopian rivers

River Catchment Annual Terminus/Mouth Major tributaries

Area(km2) Volume
BMC
Abay 199,812 54.5 Mediterranean Dabus, Dedessa, Fincha,
Guder, Muger, Jema,
Beshilo
Wabishebelle 202,697 3.4 Coast of Indian Ramis Erer, Daketa Fafan
Ocean
Genale Dawa 171,042 6 Indian-Ocean Dawa, Weyb, Welmel,
Mena
Awash 114,123 4.9 Inland (within Akaki, Kesem, Borkena,
Ethiopia) Mile
Tekeze 87,733 8.2 Mediterranean Goang, Angereb
Gibe (Omo) 79,000 16.6 Lake Turkana Gojeb
Baro Akobo 75,912 23.23 Mediterranean Akobo
 The Ethiopian Lakes

a) Rift valley lakes

 formed tectonically in depressions,

 Abaya (largest), Shala (deepest) &Ziway (shallowest)

b)Highland lakes

 Lake Tana (largest), The Tana depression is believed to be formed following

slower sinking and reservoir by lava flow between Gojjam and Gonder massifs

 Ashengie, Hayk, Bishoftu, Wonchi (near Ambo), Crater Lake(Mt. Zikwala),

c) Artificial lakes

 Koka, Fincha and Melka Wakena, etc.. hydroelectric power generation

Table 4.2: Area and depth of some of Ethiopian Lakes

Lake Area (km2) Max. Depth(m) Lake Area Max. Depth(m)

(km2)
Tana 3600 9 Abijata 205 14
Abaya 1162 13.1 Awassa 129 10
Chamo 551 13 Ashenge 20 25
Ziway 442 8.95 Hayk 5 23
Shala 409 266* Beseka 48.5 11
Koka 205 9
 Subsurface (Ground) Water Resource of Ethiopia

 As compared to surface water resources, Ethiopia has lower ground water

potential. However, there exists higher total exploitable groundwater potential.

 Ethiopian potential of groundwater is believed to range between 12-30 BMC.

 Climatic & geophysical conditions determine the availability of groundwater

resource.
4.4. Water Resources Potentials and Development in Ethiopia

 The enormous water resource potential of Ethiopia is underutilized due to so many

factors.

 The followings are some of potential uses of water resource of Ethiopia.

a) Hydro-electric Potential

 Ethiopian rivers have a very high potential for generating electricity.

 Currently many HEP dams are operating (e.g Gilgel Gibe ,Koka, Tis Abay, Fincha,
Gibe/Omo, Tana Beles, Tekeze, Melka Wakena, etc)

 Some others are under construction to realize Ethiopia’s ambitious energy goals. Grand
Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) is the country’s largest dam under construction
aiming to generate 6400 megawatts.
b) Irrigation and Transportation

 The Baro-Akobo and Genale Dawa river systems have large irrigation
potential compared to other basins.

 Despite the untapped irrigation practice, > 60% of the area under irrigation
so far is located in Rift Valley Drainage System.

 Majority of Ethiopian rivers are not suitable for transportation. The Baro at its
lower course is the only navigable river.

 Comparatively, Ethiopian lakes are much suitable for transportation than

rivers. L. Tana & Abaya are relatively the most used for transportation.
c) Fishing and Recreation
 The majority of Ethiopian lakes are rich in fish.
 Currently Lake Tana leads the potential by estimated 8,000-10,000 tons per year
 However, > 60% of fish supplies are coming from Ethiopian main Rift Valley lakes.
 However, some of the lakes are currently threatened by

 sedimentation,

 Weeds (Emboch)

 invasive species (water hyacinth),

 over exploitation

 expansion of investments around lakes.

5. THE CLIMATE OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

5.1. Introduction

 Weather- the day to day observation of weather elements i.e temp, RF,

pressure, wind, sunlight radiation. E.g hotness, coldness, sunny, windy,

rainny, foggy,

 Climate- average statistics of weather elements over longer period of time .

E.g, A.A has a mean annual temperature of 26 and mean annual RF of

650mm.
5.2.Elements and Controls of Weather and Climate

Table 5.1: Elements and controls of weather and climate

Elements Controls
Temperature Latitude/angle of the Sun
Precipitation Land and water distribution
Winds & air pressure Winds and air pressure
humidity Altitude and mountain barriers
Ocean currents
 Controls of weather & climate

a) Latitude

 Farness or proximity from the equator affect the temp. of places.

 As we move further away from the equator towards the poles, less solar insolation
and the temperature become colder.

 The Earth axis is inclined. As the Earth revolves around the sun this inclination
produce the change in the directness of the sun’s rays.
 Equinoxes and Solstices

 Equinoxes

 The time when the overhead sun is located along the equator

 During this period, the length of day and night are equal.

 Equinox appears twice a year.’;

i) The Vernal (spring) equinox:

 Vernal (spring) equinox marks the beginning of Spring season. March 21 marks
the offset of the vernal equinox.

 The day when the point of verticality of sun’s rays crosses the equator northwards.

ii) The Autumn equinox:

 Happen when the visible sun moves southwards across the celestial equator on 23rd
of September.

 It marks the beginning of Autumn season.

 Solstice
 The time when the overhead sun is located either N or S of the
equator resulting in unequal length of day & night in the
hemispheres
 Both hemispheres during this event has either the most or least
sunlight of the year.
 There are summer & winter solstices

i) Summer solstice-

 June 21st overhead sun is located on the tropic of cancer

where it is at its max. N point
 Long day & shorter nights in N-hemisphere

II)Winter solstice

 In December 22nd overhead sun in tropic of Capricorn (southern hemisphere)

 Long day & shorter nights in S-hemisphere

c) Altitude

 Altitude is the height of location above the sea level.

 Under normal conditions there is a general decrease in temperature with increasing

elevation.

 The average rate at which temperature changes per unit of altitudinal change is known as
lapse rate.

 The lapse rate is limited to the lower layer of the atmosphere (troposphere). The normal
lapse rate is 6.5°C per km rise in altitude (Environmental/atmospheric lapse rate)
 Types of lapse rate

1. Dry adiabatic laps rate

 An adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which the temperature of an air parcel changes
in response to the expansion or compression process (consequence of internal
processes ) associated with a change in altitude.

 The rate of cooling or heating resulting from vertical movement of dry air or
unsaturated air at approximately 10°C for every 1000 m of change in elevation
 If mass of dry air rises

 pressure is reduced by nearly half and consequently its volume is

doubled

 latent heat is released in the process of ascent, therefore lowering

the rate of temperature change of the rising air.

 i.e upward movement of air does not produce condensation, then the
energy expended by expansion will cause the temperature of air to fall at
the constant
2. Wet Adiabatic laps rate

 The rate of cooling of wet air (saturated air ) by approximately 5°C for every 1000 m .

 The rate at which rising or sinking saturated air changes its temperature is less than the dry
adiabatic rate

 Prolonged cooling of air produces condensation, thereby liberating latent heat.

 Therefore, rising and saturated or precipitating air cools at a slower rate than air that is
unsaturated.

3.Environmental lapse rate or Atmospheric lapse late

 Actual, observed change of temperature with altitude with in the troposphere.

 The principal exception to the rule is the cause of temperature inversions. The rate of
change is 6.50C/1000 meters.

 Air temperature is normally highest at low elevations next to the earth and decreases
with altitude. This b/c

 it is closest to the direct source of heat (earth's surface )

 It contains more water vapor and dust, which causes it to be a more

efficient absorber of earth radiation than is the thinner, drier, cleaner air
aloft.
5.3.1. The Spatio-temporal Distribution of Temperature
 The spatial distribution of temperature in Ethiopia is primarily determined by

 Latitude
 Altitude
 The direction of rain bearing winds (leeward or windward side)

 The location of Ethiopia at close proximity to equator (zone of maximum

insolation) resulted for every part of the country to experience overhead sun twice
a year.

 However, in Ethiopia, as it is a highland country, tropical temperature conditions

have no full spatial coverage. They are limited to the lowlands in the peripheries.
 As all places are within the tropics, in Ethiopia

 Air is frost free

 intense solar radiation (changes in solar angles are small)

 daily range of temp. is higher than its annual range (In the tropics, the
daily range of temperature is higher and the annual range is lower,

 Daily maximum temperature (> 37oC) is recorded over the northeast & southeast lowlands

 Daily minimum temperature (10oC-15oC) is recorded over the northwestern and southwestern
highlands.

 Mean annual temperature varies from over 30 0Cin the tropical lowlands to less than 100c at
very high altitudes.

 The highest mean maximum temperature in the country is recorded in the Afar depression
 Altitudinal zonation have their own traditional expressions in Ethiopia and there are local terms
denoting temperature zones as shown in the table below:

Table 5.2: Temperature versus Altitude

Altitude (meter) Mean annual Temp (0C) Description Local Equivalent

3,300and above 10 or less Cool Wurch
2,300 - 3,300 10 – 15 Cool Temperate Dega
1,500 - 2,300 15 – 20 Temperate Woina Dega
500 - 1,500 20 – 25 Warm Temperate Kola
below 500 25 and above Hot Bereha
 Temporal variation of temperature in Ethiopia
 In Ethiopia and elsewhere in the Horn, temperature shows seasonal variations.

 from March to June in Ethiopia have records of highest temperatures.

 Conversely, low temperatures are recorded from November to February.

5.3.2. Spatio-temporal Distribution of Rainfall

 RF in Ethiopia is influenced by the position of ITCZ ( low-pressure zone).

 ITCZ causes a variation in the Wind flow patterns over Ethiopia and the Horn

 ITCZ is convergence of Northeast Trade winds and the Equatorial Westerlies

 ITCZ shifts north and south of the equator. following position of the overhead sun
The effect of ITCZ and Global winds on Ethiopian and horn climate
 The temporal variability of rainfall

a) Summer (June, July, August)

 Majority of Ethiopian regions, except lowlands in Afar and Southeast, receive

rainfall during the summer season as the sun overheads north of the equator.

 High pressure cells develop on the Atlantic (largest) & Indian Oceans around
the tropic of Capricorn,

 During this season, Ethiopia and the Horn come under the influence of the
Equatorial Westerlies (Guinea monsoon) and South Easterlies which are
responsible for the rain in this season.
b) Autumn (September, October and November)

 ITCZ shifts towards the equator weakening the equatorial westerlies.

 South easterlies from Indian Ocean showers the lowlands in southeastern part of
Ethiopia.

c) Winter (December, January and February)

 Overhead sun is far south of equator & Northeasterly winds originating from the
Asian landmass dominantly prevail Ethiopian landmass.

 The northeasterly winds crossing the Red Sea carry very little moisture and
supplies rain only to the Afar lowlands and the Red Sea coastal areas.
d) Spring (March, April and May)

 The effect of the northeast trade wind is very much reduced.

 Conversely, the south easterlies from the Indian Ocean provide rain to
 highlands of Somalia,
 central and southeastern lowlands and highlands of Ethiopia.

 Rainfall Regions of Ethiopia

1) Summer rainfall region

 It is largest RF regions of the country or all parts of the country, except the
southeastern and northeastern lowlands.

 The region experiences most of its rain during summer/kiremt (mainly from

equatorial Westerlies) , while some places also receive spring (Belg) rain.
2) All year-round rainfall region (southwestern part of the country)

 The wetness of this region is particularly due to the prepotency of moist air currents
of equatorial Westerlies called the Guinea Monsoons.

 Both duration and amount of rainfall decreases as we move from southwest to

north and eastwards.

 The average rainfall in the region varies from 1,400 to over 2,200 mm/year.

 This region include

 Highlands of Wellega, Keffa, Illubabor, Gamgofa & part of Sidama

3) Autumn and Spring rainfall regions

 South eastern lowlands of Ethiopia receive rain during autumn and spring seasons

 The south-easterlies bring rainfall from the Indian Ocean. About 60 % of the rain is
in autumn and 40 % in spring.

 The average rainfall varies from less than 500 to 1,000 mm.

4) Winter rainfall region

 This rainfall region receives rain from the northeasterly winds.

 During the winter season, the Red sea escarpments and some parts of the Afar
region receive their main rain.
 Table 5.3: Agro Ecological Zones of Ethiopia

Zones Altitude (m) Mean annual Length of

Mean Area
rainfall (mm) growing annual share
periods temperat (%)
(days) ure (0C)
Wurch (cold to moist) >3,200 900-2,200 211–365Below 10 0.98
Dega (cool to humid) 2,300 - 3,200 900-1,200 121–210 ≥11.5– 9.94
17.5
Weyna Dega (cool sub 1,500 - 2300 800-1,200 91–120 >17.5 – 26.75
humid) 20.0
Kola (Warm semiarid) 500 - 1,500 200-800 46–90 >20.0 – 52.94
27.5
Berha (Hot arid) <500 Below 200 0–45 >27.5 9.39
5.5. Climate Change/Global Warming (Causes, Consequences and Response)

 Climate change refers to any change in climate over time, due to either natural
cause or human activities.

 Rise in mean temperature,

 Fall/increase in RF, or

 unpredictability and variability of seasons over time

5.5.1. Current Trends of Climate in Ethiopia

 Over the last decades, Ethiopia has experienced climatic changes.

 Mean annual temperature has increase by 0.08°C per decay

 over the last 40-50 yrs. shown (0.2°C to 0.28°C rise)

 B/n 1960 & 2006 temp. increase by 1.3°C

 Min temp. increase 0.37°C to o.4°C

 Warming has exacerbated droughts, and desertification in the lowlands of the country is
expanding.
 The rise has spatial & temporal variation.

 Higher rise in temperature was noted in drier areas in NE & SE part of the
country.

 variability is higher in July-September.

 Experiences climate extremes such as drought, flood etc. Ethiopia ranked 5th out of 184
countries in terms of its risk of drought.
 Trends in Rainfall Variability

 Rainfall variability is increasing (and predictability is decreasing) in many parts of

the country.

 In some regions, total average rainfall is showing decline.

 For example, parts of southern, south-western and south-eastern regions receiving

Spring and Summer rainfall have shown decline by 15-20% between 1975 and 2010.
 Causes of Climate Change

1) Natural

 Volcanic eruptions: (release sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, water

vapor, dust, and ash into the atmosphere)

 energy budget

2) Anthropogenic

 Man’s activities release gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect include Water
vapor, CO2, Methane, Nitrous oxide, Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
 Consequences of Climate Change

 Impacts on human health

 Impact on water resources

 Impact on Agriculture

 Impact on Ecosystem

 Climate change Response Mechanisms

1) Mitigation measures

 Actions that are taken to reduce & control greenhouse gas emissions either by
reducing sources ( e.g Increase the use of renewable energy such as solar energy,
avoid deforestation, reducing carbon emistion etc)
2) Adaptation Strategies

 building flood defenses,

 plan for heat waves and higher temperatures,

 improve water storage and use are some of measures taken by cities and towns.

 flexible and diverse cultivation to be prepared for natural catastrophes

 preventive and precautionary measures (evacuation plans, health issues, etc.)

 employ resettlement program in suitable ecological areas

 6: SOILS, NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES OF
ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
6.1. Ethiopian Soils: Types, Degradation and Conservation

 Soil is a composition of weathered mineral particles (45%), organic matter (5%), living
organisms, water and air

 Soil formation is a long-term process involving weathering of rocks by water , temperature, and
biological agents.

 There 3 types of weathering-

A. Mechanical (physical) weathering- disintegration of rock/parent material without alteration of

composition

B. Biological weathering-weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock by plants, animals

and microbes

C. Chemical weathering-modification of the chemical and mineralogical composition of the weathered

material through hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction, hydration, carbonation, and solution.
 Minerals in the parent materials are found in the soils, However, this is not true
of alluvial soils, which are transported from one place to the other by agents like
running water.

 Soils properties

a) physical properties (e.g texture, structure, porosity etc)

b) chemical properties ( affect soil biological activity and indirectly the nutrient
dynamics e.g availability of minerals(NPK), electrical conductivity, soil pH, etc

 .
6.2.2. Major Soil Types in Ethiopia

 Soils of Ethiopia are basically derived from

 crystalline,

 volcanic and

 Mesozoic sedimentary rocks

 FAO there are 11 major soils in Ethiopia

1. Nitosols soils

 develop on gently sloping ground & parent materials include trap series volcanics,
volcanic ash, and even metamorphic rocks.

 strongly weathered soils but more productive than most other tropical soils.

 They are basically associated with highlands with high R.F

 high R.F causes leaching which makes the nitosols to be poor in soluble minerals like
potassium, calcium etc.; and rich in non-soluble minerals like iron and aluminum.
 The reddish-brown color of these soils is because of high concentration of iron
(ferric) oxides due to leaching.

 Nitosols are dominantly found in

 western highlands (Wellega),

 southwestern highlands (Kaffa, Illuababora),

 Southern highlands,

 Central highlands, and

 Eastern highlands.
2) Acrisols soils

 One of the most inherently infertile soils of the tropics & has low productive
capacity.

 Have very low resilience to degradation

 In Ethiopia, it has lost most of the base nutrients

 Found along with nitosols mostly in some pockets of SW highlands of Ethiopia

where there is high rainfall.
3) Vertisols soils

 are heavy clay soils with a high proportion of swelling clays when wet, and
cracks when dry

 Mostly develop on
 volcanic plateau basalt,
 trachyte and pyroclastic materials,
 sedimentary rocks,
 colluvial slopes (upland base) and alluvial plains.

 In Ethiopia, they are commonly found in parts of NW, Central and SE highlands
(especially in Gojjam, Shewa, Arsi, Bale and central Hararghe).
4) Lithosols, Cambisols and Regosols

 young, shallow b/c of low pedogenic process

 coarse textured and so have low water holding capacity

 have limited agricultural use and hence they are left under the natural plant cover
and used for grazing

 Mostly found in
 rugged topography and steep slopes, and areas of low rainfall..
 In Ethiopia it is found
 Central Highlands
 Rift Valley areas
 Escarpments and highlands in of western Hararghe.
 Regosols and Lithosols are also found in the Danakil & eastern
Ogaden.
4) Xerosols, Yermosols and Solanchaks

 soils of desert or dry steppe/grassland soils majorly available in arid and semiarid areas.

 desert soils are characterized by high salt content and low organic content, because of
the scanty vegetation.

 Generally, these soils

 have poor humus content and nitrogen,

 rich in phosphorus and potash

 can be very fertile if irrigated.

a) Xerosols soils

 Extremely subjected to wind erosion and concentration of soluble salts.

 Found in Ogaden and northeastern escarpments

b) Yermosols soil

 are drier and more problematic than Xerosols.

 cover the Ogaden and Afar plains

c) Solanchaks soil

 saline soils which develop in areas of high evaporation and capillary

action.

 Badly managed irrigation schemes may turn soils into solonchaks.

 Mainly located in salty plains of Afar.

5) Fluvisols Soil

 Formed due to deposition of eroded materials on flat or nearly flat ground.

 Are fertile and their fertility is always renewed as a result of deposition of new soil materials.

 These soils are associated with fluvial (river), marine (sea) and lacustine (lake) deposits.

 Are associated with rivers and ground water, making them important for large-scale
irrigation

 Mainly found in

 Lower regions of rivers like Omo, Awash, Abay

 plains of Akobo and Baro

 Lakes region (main Ethiopian rift).

6) Luvisols soils

 Develope mainly in areas where pronounced wet & dry seasons occur in alternation.

 Where leaching is not very high, they are found in association with nitosols.

 have good chemical nutrients and they are among the best agricultural soils in the
tropics.

 They are intensively cultivated. However, when luvisols are found on steep slopes
(stony) and on flat areas (waterlogged) they are left for grazing.
 In Ethiopia, they are found in

 Lake Tana area,

 parts of Northern, Central and Eastern Highlands and

 Southern lowlands.
6.2.2. Soil Degradation

 It is a critical and growing global problem in countries like Ethiopia in which

agriculture is the main stay of the economy.

 Erosion of topsoil by wind and water exceeds soil formation at an alarming rate.

 In Ethiopia, an estimated average of 42 tons per hectare of soils is eroded annually

 It is a major concern because it affects

1) the productive capacity of an ecosystem.

2) global climate through

 alterations in water and energy balances and

 disruptions in cycles of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and other elements.

 Types of soil degradation

1) Physical Degradation: refers to the deterioration of the physical properties of soil.

A. Compaction:

 caused by the elimination or reduction of structural pores.

 Soils prone to compaction are susceptible to accelerated runoff and erosion.

A. Soil erosion:

 three-phase process consisting of the detachment of individual soil particles,

transportation and deposition.

 The continuous strike of soil surface by rain droplets considerably weakness the soil
and makes susceptible to erosion.
ii) Biological Degradation

 Ramifications/effects of biological degradation include reduction/decline in

 soil organic matter content,

 biomass carbon, and

 activity and diversity of soil fauna

 Because of prevailing high temperatures, biological degradation of soil is more severe in

the tropics than in the temperate zone.

 It can also be caused by indiscriminate and excessive use of chemicals and soil pollutants.

iii) Chemical Degradation-

 Soil nutrient depletion.

 Excessive leaching of cat-ions in soils with low-activity clays causes a decline in soil pH and
base saturation

 buildup of some toxic chemicals and an elemental imbalance that is injurious to plant growth.
 Causes and Control of soil degradation

 Causes

 Topographic and climatic factors such as

 steep slopes,

 high-intensity rains, frequent floods and

tornadoes/storms/hurricane

 high-velocity wind

 Deforestation and overexploitation of vegetation,

 overgrazing,

 indiscriminate use of agrochemicals

 lack of soil conservation practices,

 over extraction of ground water

 Control Measures

 Erosion is a natural process, it cannot be prevented, but it can be reduced to a maximum acceptable
level or soil loss tolerance.

A) Biological Control measures

 Include vegetative strips, plantation, and reforestation.

 And biological controls can

 prevent splash erosion,

 reduces the velocity of surface runoff, & increase infiltration

) Physical control measures
B

 Physical measures are used to control the movement of water and wind over the
soil surface.

 The major types of physical erosion control measures commonly applied in Ethiopia
includes

 terracing,/stone bund

 Soil bund

 check dams,

 Gabion (welded wire used to keep slope stability & erosion protection),.
Used to prevent erosion mainly in river channel,

 contour ploughing
6.2 Natural Vegetation of Ethiopia

 Natural vegetation refers to a plant cover that develops with little or no human interference.

 Its distribution on the surface of the earth is uneven majorly controlled by factors like
 climate (mainly temp. & R.F),
 soil types,
 drainage,
 Altitude

 Spatial distribution of natural vegetation in Ethiopia is strongly correlated to elevation. i.e

 Lowlands due to low RF & high temperature have xeromorphic plants (plants which are adapted
to drought and high temperatures).

 Highlands (up to about 3000 m) are cooler than the lowlands and where there is adequate moisture a
variety of forests can be seen.
 Major vegetation types of Ethiopia

1. Afro-alpine and sub-afro alpine Region

2. Forest Region

3. Woodland Savannah Region

4. Steppe Region

5. Semi-desert Region
1) Afro-alpine and Sub-afro alpine region vegetation
 Found on mountains having

 Elevation 3,200 --- 4,620 meters a.b.s.l. Afro Alpine ( 4,000 – 4,620 m)

 RF 800—1500mm mostly in the form of sleet or snow

 Soils in this ecosystem are mostly shallow & eroded

 Ethiopia has the largest extent of Afro-alpine and sub afro-alpine habitats in Africa.

 The Bale and Semein mountains are typical examples of afro-alpine vegetation.

 Vegetation in the Afro-alpine region consists of

 Tussock/bunch grass lands,
 Scrub/undergrowth
 scattered mosses and lichens
 Lobelia rhynchopetalum (giberra)

 Sub-afro alpine region is dominated by woodland, Erica arborea (Asta) is dominant species in Sub-
afro alpine region
 Tussock grasslands

a) Lobelia rhynchopetalum (Jibira) b) Erica arborea (Asta)

2) Forest Region

 Forest is a complex ecosystem consisting predominantly of trees that shield earth and support
numerous life forms.

 In Ethiopia, forests are found at different elevations,

 Variations in RF & altitude result in two broad classification of forests: Highlands and
Lowland forests

a) Highland forests include

 Hagenia Abyssinia (Kosso),

 Juniper procera (tid),

 Arundinaria Alpina(kerkha),

 Podocarpus falcatus (zigba),

 Aningeria adolfi‑friedericii (keraro) and

 Olea africana (Weyra) forests;

b) Lowland forest
 Riverine (gallery) forests are found in the banks of Awash, Wabishebelle, Ghenale etc. Dominant species
include Ficus sur (sholla) and different kinds of acacia trees.

3) Woodland Savannah Region

 The plants in the woodland savannah are known for their xeromorphic characteristics like shading of
leaves during the dry season.

 Woodland savannah region can be broadly classified into three divisions:

a) Juniper procera (tid)

 Tid is dominant species for both the Junipers Forests & Junipers Woodlands. The difference is in
height: 3 - 45 meters tall in the forests and 10 -15 meters in the woodlands.

b) Acacia woodlands

 dominated by both trees & shrubs, which belong to the same genus 'Acacia'. E.g. Acacia etbaica (grar), Acacia
mellifera (Konter).

c) Mixed deciduous woodlands:

 most of the trees in mixed deciduous woodlands shed their leaves during the dry season.
4) Steppe/grass land and Semi Desert Regions vegetation
 These are regions in the arid and semiarid parts of the country where the temperature is very high and
the rainfall very low.

 Both are found at low elevations,

 the steppe veg. at elevations of 100 to 1,400 m above sea level and

 the semi-deserts veg. at 130 meters below sea level to 600 meters above sea level.

 Xerophytic plants (drought-resisting plants) such as short shrubs, scattered tufts of

grass species and a variety of acacias are the dominant vegetation
 Natural vegetation degradation-major causes for disappearance of vegetation in
Ethiopia: (yared)

 Clearing of forests for cultivation

 Timber exploitation practices

 Charcoal burning and cutting for fuel

 Extensions of coffee and tea production areas

 Overgrazing

 Expansion of settlements both rural and urban, and clearing for

construction.
 Natural vegetation conservation

 Approaches of biodiversity conservation:

1) Protection:

 designation and management of protected areas include sanctuaries, national

parks, and community conservation areas.

2) Sustainable forest management:

 sustainable harvesting of forest products to provide a source of financial income

3) Restoration or rehabilitation:

 recovery of a forest ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed.

 This may involve the re-establishment of the characteristics of a forest

ecosystem, such as composition, structure, and function, which were prevalent
before its degradation.
6.4. Wild Animals in Ethiopia (AAU scc 4)

 Importance of wildlife:

 scientific & educational researches use

 physical and mental recreation (aesthetic value)

 promotion of tourism (economic value)

 maintaining ecological balance

 Wildlife conservation:

 100,000 km2 area have been established in d/t part of the country and this area consist of

 national parks – It provides protection to the entire set of the ecosystem, i.e.
flora, fauna, landscape, etc (preserve fauna, flora, landscape, historic objects)

 Sanctuaries-Wildlife sanctuaries refer to an area which provides protection and

favourable living conditions to the wild animals. (preserve birds, animals,
insects, reptiles)

 community conservation areas,

 botanical gardens (collection of living plants ),

 wildlife reserves (used to conserve rare and threatened species, soil and water
conservation, and enhancement of our economy up to a certain extent. The lands
which are not suitable for agriculture and horticultureor have unique value)
 The wild animals in Ethiopia can be classified into five major groups:

1. Common wild animals (those animals that are found in many parts of the country
(e.g. hyenas, jackals)

2. Game (lowland) animal, (which include many herbivores like giraffes, wild asses,
zebras etc. and carnivores like lions, leopards, and cheetahs)

3. Tree animals or arboreals (which include monkeys, baboons)

4. A variety of birds in the Rift Valley lakes

5. Rare animals -gelada baboon, Red/Semien fox, walia- ibex (Semien Massifs), Nyala
(Arsi Bale massifs).
 In Ethiopia there are:

 21 major national parks (preserve fauna, flora, landscape, historic objects)

 2 major wildlife sanctuaries (preserve birds, animals, insects, reptiles)

 3 wildlife reserves,

 6 community conservation areas,

 2 wildlife rescue centres,

 22 controlled hunting areas,

 2 botanical gardens, and 3 biosphere reserves/testing site

Table 6.2: National Parks of Ethiopia
S.no Name Region Year est. Area in sq.km
1 Kafeta Shiraro Tigray 1999 5000
2 Semien Mountains Amhara 1959 412
3 Alatish Amhara
4 Bahir Dar Blue Nile Amhara 2008 4729
River Millennium
5 Borena Saynt Amhara 2008 4325
6 Yangudi-Rassa Afar 1969 4731
7 Awash Oromiya and Afar 1958 756
8 Dati Wolel Oromiya 2010 1031
9 Bale Mountains Oromiya 1962 2200
10 Yabello Oromiya 1978 1500
11 Abijata Shala Oromiya 1963 887
12 Arsi Mountains Oromiya 2012
13 Geralle Somali 1998 3558
14 Gambella Gambella 1966 4650
15 Nechsar SNNPR 1966 514
16 Omo SNNPR 1959 3566
17 Mago SNNPR 1974 1947
18 Maze SNNPR 1997 202
19 Gibe Sheleko SNNPR 2001 248
20 Loka Abaya SNNPR 2001 500
21 Chabra Churchura SNNPR 1997 1190
 Challenges of wild life conservation in Ethiopia
 Limited awareness on the importance of wild life
 Expansion of human settlement in protected areas.
 Conflict over resource
 Overgrazing (fodder and wood)
 Illegal wildlife trade
 Excessive hunting
 Mining and construction material extraction
 Forest fire
CHAPTER 7: POPULATION OF ETHIOPIA

7.1 Population Data: Uses and Sources-

 Regular& reliable population data are vital for Socioeconomic development planning and
administration such as-

 provision of infrastructures(education/schools, health/hospitals, roads, water and

sewerage facilities, housing,

 establishing voting district boundaries,

 estimating future tax revenue and designing public programs.

 Hence, demographic data are crucial to

 administrators,
 businessmen,
 researchers,
 academicians and
 planners.
 Population data sources(3)

1) Census
 collecting,
 compiling,
 analyzing and
 publishing demographic, economic and social data pertaining at a specified time
interval (usually 10 years) to all persons in a defined territory.

 Major characteristics of census include:

1) Universality- inclusion of all persons during the count,

2) Periodicity- undertaking at regular time intervals ,usually 10 years and 5 years,

3) Simultaneity: held in a very limited time duration called the census day/night,

4) Government sponsored,: it is planned, financed & administered by the government)

 Two approaches of census
A) Dejure approach

 Counting people according to their usual place of residence (where he/she lives most of
the time).

 This system gives a picture of the total permanent population of an area, which is suitable
for planning and administrative purposes.

B) Defacto approach

 Each individual is recorded at the place where he/she was found at the time of the census
2) Sample Survey
 Enumeration is done based on selected Woredas/kebeles to minimize cost and get detailed data

 But, has disadvantage of sampling errors and inadequate coverage.

 Usually conducted during a period of transion b/n two consecutive census

.
 Data from censuses and sample surveys include

 location, age, sex, marital status, citizenship, place of birth,

 relationship to the head of household,

 religion,

 educational level,

 occupation,

 fertility,

 income,

 language,

 ethnic characteristics,

 disabilities, and migration.

3) Vital Registration (sect.4 tuedy)
 It is continuous, permanent, compulsory and legal recording of the occurrence and the
characteristics of vital events like
 births,
 deaths,
 marriages,
 divorces, and
 adoptions.
 Vital data is more precise than census/sample survey and the system provides time series data.
 population data suffer from
 inaccuracy and error from:
 inadequately financed
 less trained enumerator
 suspicion and ignorance and
 false statements (Age& income);
 .
  administrative changes; omission inaccessible areas;
 wide difference in connotation of terms like language, ethnicity, and occupation.
 Errors of data collection, data processing, analyses and the writing up of the report

7.2 Population Dynamics: Fertility, Mortality and Migration of Ethiopia

7.2.1. Introduction
 The population of any particular region (country) grows/declines as a result of the
combined effect of the three demographic variables: fertility, mortality and migration.
 Ethiopia is endowed with a large and fast-growing population ranking 2nd in Africa after
Nigeria.
Census year Total population Rate of growth

1984 42.2 million 2.9%

1994 53.5 million
2007 73.8 million

 Based on projected data from CSA, Ethiopia has an estimated population of 135
million (if unchecked) and the current growth rate is about 2.6%. and
,
7.2.2. Demographic Measurements

 In Ethiopia, fertility and mortality are the two principal determinants of population
growth as international migration is insignificant.
 Fertility is actual reproductive performance of a population. It is affected by age at
marriage, women status, socio-cultural factors (religion, culture), sex preference
etc
 Some of the basic demographic measurements include:

1. Crude Birth Rate refers to the number of live births per 1000 population

2. General Fertility Rate refers to the total number of live births per 1000 women of reproductive
age. It is relatively specific
3. Total Fertility Rate (T.F.R.) refers to the average number of children that a
women would have at the end of their reproductive period (during women life time )

Where, Bi = Total live births in age group i,

Wi =Total number of women in age group I i.e.
1= 15-19 5=35-39
2=20-24 6= 40-44
3=25-29 7=45-49
4 = 30-34
4. Crude Death Rate refers to the number of deaths per 1000 population in a year
(sec.A)
5. Infant Mortality rate

 refers to the total number of deaths of infants per one thousand live Birth

 Infant mortality draws special attention because of its large size & the heavy
impact it has on the crude death rate.

 The 2016 demographic and health survey result showed that infant mortality in
Ethiopia has decreased from 97 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2000 to 48 in
2016.
6. Maternal Mortality Rate: refers to death of mothers in connection from
pregnancy and birth complications per hundred thousand live birth.

7. Life Expectancy at birth: refers to the average number of years that a newly born
baby is expected to live. It is used as a summary measure of the mortality experience
of the whole population.

8. Natural Rate of Increase: is the difference between crude birth rate and crude death
rate expressed in percentage.

 NRI= (C.B.R. - C.D.R.)

7.3. Levels and trends in Fertility and Mortality rates in Ethiopia

 Birth and death rates vary b/n rural and urban

 Urban areas - have lower birth and death rates than rural areas for better living
conditions , family planning program is gaining ground.

 average number of children in rural areas is 5.2 , compared to 2.3 children in urban
areas.

 TFR(2016)
 Addis Ababa (1.8 children per woman)
 Dire Dawa (3.1)
 Gambella (3.5), and
 Amhara (3.7)
 TFR more than the national average (4.6 children) in Somali (7.2), Afar (5.5),
Oromia (5.4), and Tigray (4.7).

 Recently, fertility is showing a declining trend.

 TFR declined from 7.52 in 1984 to 6.74 in 1994,

 Mortality rates is also declining . Before 2000, almost all regions more than
100 infant deaths per 1,000 live births, but by 2011 infant mortality in all
regions was lower than 100, except for Benishangul Gumuz
 Mortality rates show variation by reigns

 In 2016, IMR at the country(54), 48 in urban areas and 62 in rural.

 IMR lower than national average in
 Addis Ababa
 Somali, and
 Gambella;

 while higher IMR was recorded in Benishangul, SNNPR, & Tigray.

 Life expectancy in A.A greater than national average; the lowest is in

Benishangul- Gumuz (47 years) followed by SNNPR (49 years).

 The relatively high life expectancy and low infant mortality rates for Addis
Ababa relate to access to health services.
 BR have remained high than DR due to:

1)Low family planning practices and lack of education;

2)Lower status of women

3)Early marriage, particularly of females;

4)children considered as assets by parents, though little obliged for their education,
health;

5)The relatively high infant & child mortality rates, that trigger couples to have more
births to compensate for the loses and

6)religious influences
 Consequences of Rapid population growth

1)Low per capita GNP/income

2)Unemployment and Underemployment

3)mounting social ills such as destitution, begging, theft, prostitution

4)Price inflation that erodes purchasing power of the currency

5)shortage of land & food shortages and insecurity

6)overcrowding of infrastructural and social facilities; housing problems and increase in

urban slums and squatter settlements

7)Environmental problems like deforestation, soil erosion, loss of biodiversity and

pollution.
 Migration in Ethiopia and the Horn

 Mobility involving a permanent or semi-permanent change of residence

 Migration has implications:

1)increased level of urbanization;

2)rural-urban linkages and integrated economy

3)influences spatial population distribution

4)Influences fertility and mortality patterns and levels; and affects age and sex
composition

5)a cause and consequence of inequality, diversity;

6)Creative & open society to new ideas than a homogenous group of people
1. Internal Migration in Ethiopia
 Influenced by
 demographic,
 environmental,
 socio-economic
 political factors
 Accelerated in the early 20th C. with the rise in urban centers and the Italian
occupation.
 Derg Regime rural- urban migration was discouraged for reasons.
 The 1976/77 land to the tiller‟ proclamation granted land to landless
farmers;
 nationalization of urban land& shortage housing;
 urban unemployment and underemployment
2.. International migration

 After the 1974 revolution due to political conflict, persecution/operation and famine. E.g. Red
Terror (1976-79)
 Ethiopian emigrants increased(4million) to the
 Middle East,

 USA,

 Canada,

 Europe and

 African countries such as Sudan, Kenya, S. Africa, and Botswana.

 The causes of cross-border migration include:

1)Lack of employment and livelihood opportunities, and negative attitudes attached with low paying
and informal job and poor work ethics amongst the youth.

2)Rural underemployment and lack of resources

3) Unfavorable political context and insecurity, civil war and political turmoil,
4) Ethiopia’s location in the fragile region of the Horn of Africa and its long boundary
that extends over 5,328 km which makes border management difficult

5) Existence of large number of local brokers with networks extending to countries of

destination;

6) Misinformation and false promises by brokers/traffickers; success stories of

pioneering migrants; family and peer pressure

7) Emergence of ‘culture of migration’ and migration networks

8) Demand-side factors of migration (shortage of labour in low-paying, informal, and

perilous/risky jobs, such as domestic work, construction, agriculture in destination
countries)
 Ethiopia is a country of origin, transit and destination for international migration.

 Ethiopia appears to be a hub(center) on three land routes (3 migration routes)

1. Horn of Africa via Sudan, Chad, Egypt and Libya to the Mediterranean Sea
towards Europe;

2. Somalia and Djibouti to Yemen across the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea towards the
Middle East. 60 to 70% of Ethiopians migrating to the Middle East are irregular
migrants.

3. Southern irregular route that is an overland route Kenya Tanzania towards to

South Africa.
 International Labour Organization/ILO/ in 2016 identified the following migration
source areas of Ethiopia with high and growing incidence of emigration:

1) Dessie (North and South Wollo) area: Kemise, Bati, Kalu (Kombolcha),
Dessie and its surroundings, Tehuledere (Haiq, Girana, Bistima, Bakaksa,
Worebabo), Mersa, and Woldia.

2) Shashemene (Western Arsi and Bale) area: Shashemene-Zuria, Kofele,

Kore, and Assassa.

3) Jimma (Western Ethiopia) area: Kaffa, Wolega and Iluababora, and more
specifically Mana, Kerisa, Dedo, Agaro, Setema, Sigmo, and Gomma areas

4) Mekelle/Tigray area::Alamata, Kobo, Erob, Edagahamus, Gulomehadi,

Etsebi, and Weneberta.
 Other prominent emigration source areas include (Assela-Zuria, Adama-Zuria,
Ambo, Fitche, Chancho, and Western Hararghe (Hirna, Gelemso); Shewa Robit,
Debre Birhan, and Debre Tabor).

 As a major destination country, Ethiopia hosts the second largest number of

refugees in Africa.

 According to UNHCR 2019, refugee and asylum seeker population in Ethiopia was
about one million.

 Many migrants, refugees and asylum seekers entering Ethiopia are escaping
political and civil unrest as well as harsh or undesirable conditions (e.g. drought) in
neighboring countries of South Sudan, Somalia, Eritrea and Sudan.
7.4. Age and Sex Structure of Ethiopian Population (GR 1)

 Age Structure refers to the distribution of population by age groups.

 Age groups include- (broad age groups )

 Young age (0-14)- accounts largest percentage b/c of high birth rate and
natural increase

 Working age (15-64 )- high mortality rate, hares low percentage

 Old age (65 and above )

 five-year age groups (0-4, 5-9, 10-14, ..., 60-64, 65 and above) and
 It is generally accepted that people in the young and old ages are dependent on the
working age population.

 Age dependency ratio (A.D.R.) can roughly be used to show the magnitude of
dependency.

Where: P is population in the age groups

a) Young dependency ratio

b) old age index. This index expresses the old age population as the percentage of the
working age population as follows:
 Population pyramid

 A pyramid showing male & female population as classified into five-year age
groups.

 It can tell us -

 Population groups (male or female) having large number of people,

 age groups have male-female imbalances, and

 the fertility & mortality situations.

 Population pyramid
 Population pyramids of developing countries like Ethiopia have very broad bases
and become thinner and thinner upwards as age advances.

 Heavy youth dependency implications

1) burden on the working population

2) allocation of most of the household budget to food and other household

needs with little/nothing left for saving;

3) diversion of limited resources on social services - building of schools and

hospitals and purchase of medicines, etc.

4) creation of a society with booming babies that require an expansion of

employment opportunities by the time they are of age

5) further promotion of high-level fertility by increased number of women

entering the reproductive age (ages 15-49) annually.
 Sex Structure

 Sex structure refers to the ratio of male population to female population at different
age groups. It is usually expressed as:
 Sex ratio of Ethiopian population in 1984 census

 99.males for every 100 females. (national level)

 100.9 M for every 100 F (rural areas)

 86.8 M for every 100 F (urbn areas)

 90.2. M for every 100 F (A.A)

 1994 census sex ratio of Ethiopian population

 101.3 males for every 100 females (national level)

 102.6 M/ per 100 F (rural area)

 93.3 M/ per 100 F (urban areas area)

 94, M/ per 100 F (Addis Ababa.)

 In 2015, male to female ratio for Ethiopia was 99.96 males per 100 females.
 Sex ratios variation

 Urban-rural area- lower for urban areas, and higher for rural areas
primarily due to larger female in-migration to urban areas.

 Age- at birth & young ages males tend to be greater in number, but they
become increasingly less as age increases

 It also shows some variation by region

 General characteristics of Ethiopian population

1. High rate of population growth

2. High infant mortality rate

3. Yong population domination

4. High dependency ratio

7.5. Population Distribution in Ethiopia

 Population distribution refers to the arrangement of people over space that is

provided for them to settle and make a living through exploiting resources.

 Measures of Population Distribution

 Population Density- number of people per unit area.

1) Crude Density

 Crude density is found by dividing total population to total area.

 There is considerable variations in population density among the
administrative regions of the country.

 1st .SNNP -173 people/km2

 2nd Amhara region-

 3rd Gambella
 Somali, Afar and Benishangul-Gumuz are regions with low densities of
population
2) Physiological Density

/
=Total population Arable land

 Ethiopia's physiological density (for 1998) is 61.8 people/km2.

 Ethiopia's PD is very low compared to PD of countries like

 Japan (1,732 people/km2),

 Egypt (1,575 people/km2) and

 Netherlands (1,220 people/km2),.

3) Agricultural Density/Rural density

/
=Rural/agricultural population Cultivated land

 It is more meaningful than both crude and physiological density measures as it

gives a better indication of the pressure of population on land resources..

 Factors of agricultural density

 proportion of cultivated land and

 urban population of the regions.

 Other things being equal, agricultural density tends to be higher where both the
percentage of cultivated land and the percentage of urban population are low.

 Rural density is the highest for Somali Afar and Gambella

7.5.2. Factors Affecting Population Distribution in Ethiopia

1) Physical Factors-include climate (mainly rainfall & temperature), soil, vegetation.

drainage and slope.

 77.5 % of the population of the country lives in areas above 1,800 a.b.s.l which
makes 37.6 % of the total area.

 The area above 1,400 meter a.s.l, which makes up 65.7% of the total area of
Ethiopia, supports 89 % of the population of the country.

 However, caution could be made as there are many severely dissected areas within
the highlands with a few or no people.

 Unlike the high population concentration along the valleys of major rivers of the
world such as the Nile, Indus and Huang; the disease infested narrow and steep
valleys of major rivers of Ethiopia are areas of sparse population distribution
2) Human Factors

a) The historical Pattern of Population Movement

 There was two waves of population movement i.e North & south ward
movement of people in turn affect population distribution

a) After the decline of the Axumite Empire, there was southward

movement of the Tigre, Amhara, Agew & Guraghe populations starting from
the 7th century.

b) movement of the Oromos during the 16th and 17th centuries.

b) Economic Activities

 pastoral herding, population densities are extremely low.

 The type of crop cultivated could result in varying densities. For instance, enset &
coffee regions of Ethiopia have greater yield per unit area that gave rise to the
very high density of population in some South-central Zones and weredas.

 The development of commercial farms in some parts of Ethiopia like the Awash
valley is also a significant factor in causing population movements and changes in
the population concentration.

 urban and industrial growths as well as transportation routes can bring

population re-distribution over time and explaining density variation.
7.6. Socio-cultural Aspects of Ethiopian Population: Education, Health and
Languages
 Education

 Literacy is a means by which members of a society are enabled & empowered to

effectively participate in the development process.

 High level of education correlates with higher incomes, better health, longer life
span, and lower mortality.

 Human capital development is a cause & consequence of development.

 Education is also a human right.

 Health

 Despite recognizable improvements, Ethiopia has still a heavy burden of diseases but a
low rate of self-reported illness and low health facility coverage and utilization.

 Some of the root causes of the poor health status of the population are:

1. Lack of access to clean water

 rivers and lakes remain the most important sources of water particularly for people in rural areas.

2. Lack of adequate nutrition:

 It is rampant /widespread & is among the highest in the world.
 About half of children under the age of five are malnourished, stunted or wasted.

3. Disease related to beliefs, behaviors & traditional practices

 circumcision, early marriage, and low value of girls and children

4. Lack of health services

 health care infrastructure of the country had suffered from under funding; and
 health service coverage is less than 50% of the population.
 The services tend to be urban biased.
 The major killer diseases accounting for about ¾ of all deaths include

 prenatal-maternal conditions,

 acute respiratory infection,

 malaria,

 nutritional deficiency for children under 5 years,

 diarrhea,

 AIDS and

 Tuberculosis.
7.6.3. Languages Families and Languages of Ethiopia

 Ethiopia is a country where about 80 languages are spoken.

 The Ethiopian languages belong to two Supper Families:
 Afro-Asiatic and

 Nilo-Saharan.

1. Afro-Asiatic- include Semitic, Cushitic and Omotic.

a) Cushitic

 predominantly spoken in central, southern, eastern and northeastern parts of

Ethiopia mainly in Afar, Oromia and Somali regions

 has the largest number of speakers and the widest spatial coverage.

 This languages family consists of Oromigna, Somaligna, Sidamigna, Afarigna,

Kembatigna, Hadiyigna, Alabigna, Gedeogna, and others.
b) Semetic

 Spoken in northern, central and eastern parts of Ethiopia particularly in Tigray,

Amhara, Harari and northern SNNP

 Some of the Semitic Languages include Amarigna, Tigrigna, Guragigna, Siltigna,

Aderigna, and Argobigna.

c) Omotic

 predominantly spoken in the south–central and south-western parts of Ethiopia

mainly between the Lakes of southern Rift Valley and the Omo River.

 are numerous but are not as widely spread as the Cushitic

 It includies Wolaitigna, Gamogna, Kullogna, Kefigna, and Kontigna

 Relatively small number of people speaks most of the languages in this group.
2) NiloSaharan

 spoken in the western lowlands of Ethiopia along the border with Sudan, in
Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz region.

 These Languages are spoken by small numbers of people often less than 500,000
people.

 The individual languages of Nilo-Saharan Supper Family include Kunamigna,

Bejigna, Gumuzigna, Maogna, Kewamigna, Nuerigna, Annukigna, and others.

 7. Settlement Types and Patterns

 7.7.1. Types of Settlement

 Settlements are places that are inhabited by people more or less on a permanent
basis, and where people carry out a variety of activities such as agriculture,
manufacturing and commerce.
 Types of settlement

a) rural

 Temporary / Mobile Settlements-

 Lowlands in most parts of the Rift Valley and peripheral areas, being generally
hot and dry, are characterized by pastoral herding and mobile settlement

 Permanent Settlements

 there are no frequent changes in their locations.

 Most Ethiopian rural highland settlements where crop cultivation is practiced are
permanent

 divided into diffused/dispersed and grouped/ clustered or nucleated)

 Urban Settlements and Urbanization in Ethiopia
 Urbanization refers to the increase in the percentage of the population living in urban
centers.
 It entails/involves the process of

 becoming urban,

 moving to cities

 changing from agriculture to other pursuits of life which are common to towns
and,

 corresponding change of behavioral patterns.

 The major criteria used to classify settlements as urban in Ethiopia are:

i. Minimum of 2,000 people;

ii. Two-thirds of the population engaged in non-agricultural activities;

iii. Chartered municipality;

iv. The presence of social services & amenities/facilities

 History of Urbanization in Ethiopia

 Modern urbanization in Ethiopia is associated with the establishment of Addis Ababa

as a capital by Emperor Menelik II in the late 19th century.

 Factors that contributed to the growing and permanency of A.A as a capital city

1. Introduction of the eucalyptus tree which satisfied the firewood needs of the ever-growing
urban population.

2. Water supplies improved due to the introduction of wells and reservoirs.

3. Introduction of modern schools, hospitals and health centres, hotels, cafes, bars,
bakeries, butcher’s shops, cinema, post office, modern cathedrals, telephone and telegraph
system, bank, printing press etc.

4. The construction of roads that radiate from Addis Ababa; and the arrival of the Franco-
Ethiopian railway at Addis Ababa in 1917.

5. The Italian occupation had also intensified the establishment of small-scale industries
and institutions, road construction thereby contributing to the growth of the city.
 Distribution of Urban Centers in Ethiopia

i. The Addis Ababa Metropolitan cluster

 Addis Ababa and its surrounding towns;

 Adama and its surrounding towns

ii. Secondary city clusters

 Lake Tana Urban Cluster: Bahir Dar, Gondar Debre Tabour, Debre Markos

 South Rift Valley Urban Cluster: Hawassa-Shashemene-Dila; & Hosana-Sodo-Arba

Minch

 Eastern Urban Cluster: Dire Dawa, Harar, Jigjiga

 Mekelle Urban Cluster: Mekelle, Adigrat, Shire, Axum

 Dessie- Kombolcha Urban Cluster.

 Jima Urban Cluster: Jima, Agaro, Mizan, Tepi, Gambella

iii. Tertiary urban clusters include:

 Nekemte Urban Cluster: Nekemte, Dembidolo, Gimbi, Metu, Assosa

 Gode - Kebri Dar oasis city network

 Semera-Mille – Asaita oasis city network

 Growth Rate of Urban Centers

 The annual average national growth rate of urban population is about 5.0 %.

 Ethiopia’s towns are characterized by wide range of growth rates that could be
classified into one of the following three broad categories
1. Declining Towns:

 populations are declining in because net out migration is greater than

natural increase.

 This could be due to lack of employment opportunities and worsening

living conditions. E.g , Axum, Goba and Maichew.
2) Slow Growing Towns

 Grow at the rate which is less than the rate of natural increase.

 Towns such as Holeta, Harar and Gore have been indicated to grow slowly in the
recent past.

3) Fast Growing Towns

 Growth rates of greater than the natural rate of increase

 These towns pull large numbers of people from the declining or slowly growing
towns and rural areas due to the opportunities they offer

 expansion in industries, social services

 a change in their administrative status as zonal or regional capitals.