Vulcanicity

• -Process in which solid, liquid or gaseous

materials are forced out of the interior of the
earth into the earth’s crust or onto the earth’s
surface.
• These materials are magma, lava, gases, dust,
ash and cinder.
• Causes of Vulcanicity
• Magma under high temperature and pressure
moving through lines of weakness or faults.
• When tectonic plates move away from each
other and boundaries give way to magma.
• Underground water coming into contact with
hot materials hence changing into gaseous
form.
 There are 2 types of Vulcanicity:

• 1.Intrusive Vulcanicity (plutonic)

• 2.Extrusive Vulcanicity (volcanic)
• 1.Intrusive Vulcanicity (plutonic) :
• Its when magma cools and solidifies below the
earth‘s surface forming features
• In which materials intrude crustal rocks and don’t
reach the earth’s surface( due to low energy to push it
out)
• Magma is the molten material while it’s underground.
• 2.Extrusive Vulcanicity (volcanic): in which materials reach
the earth’s surface.
• Lava is the molten material after it reaches the surface.
• There are two types of lava and magma,
• 1. Acidic
• 2. Basic.
• Types depend on the chemical composition;
• a)Acidic lava: very thick, rich in silica content- violent
eruption and lava solidifies very quickly /Acidic lava is
viscous and solidifies quickly and hardly spread far but
accumulates around the vent.
• b)Basic lava: this is more fluid, low in silica
content and flows for a very long distance
before it solidifies. / Basic lava is more fluid or
less viscous and takes longer before cooling
and spreads for great distances before doing
so.
• c)Pyroclasts (Heated lava): when lava is
heated, it breaks down into small fragments or
pieces (Pyroclasts),
• Other materials emitted are gases, ashes,
dust and cinder. The solid materials are called
pyroclasts.
• Materials come out to the surface through
two ways.
• 1. A hole/vent (vent eruption)
• 2. A crack/fissure (fissure eruption).
 Intrusive features/plutonic features.

• These are formed when magma solidifies

underground.
• The magma may spread, accumulate or
remain in the passage within the crustal rocks.
• The features formed depend on the viscosity
of the magma and the nature of the intruded
rocks.
• Intrusive features
• •These are features formed when magma solidifies
underground.
• •They include;
• a)Batholiths.
• b)Dykes.
• c)Sills.
• d)Laccolith.
• e) Lopolith:
• f) phacolith
• 1) Dykes:
• These are layers of igneous intrusion formed when magma
solidifies into vertical cracks, cutting across rock layers.
• They could be vertical or slightly slanting depending on the
nature of the cracks.
• Where a dyke is made up of a rock that is more resistant to
erosion than the surrounding rocks, and when affected by
erosion, the dyke stands as a ridge.
• Examples of this type are Devil’s knuckles and Jambila in
Transvaal province-S.A Along the Thyolo escarpment in
Malawi, on the Jos Plateau in Nigeria.
• Where the dykes are softer than the
surrounding rock, erosion creates a furrow or
trench across the land.
• Examples of trench dykes are to the west of
Lake Turkana in Kenya; at the south Africa-
Swaziland border forming the channel of river
Ugutugulo, at Lancer’s Gap near Maseru in
Lesotho.
• 2) Sills:
• They form when magma solidifies in between rock layers.
• The layer may be horizontal or slightly dipping depending
on whether the bedding planes of the intruded rocks are
horizontal or are dipping.
• After prolonged erosion, some Sills may be exposed as
escarpments.
• Where they occur across a river valley they cause water
falls and rapids.
• Examples are Thika and Thompson falls in Kenya, Karuma
falls and Bujagali in Uganda.
• 3. Laccoliths:
• -A mushroom-shaped igneous intrusion lying between
bending planes of a country rock.
• -Formed when viscous magma pushes its way through
a vent and accumulates around the vent before
reaching the earth’s surface pushing the overlying rock
into a dome shape.
• -Its so high that land is turned into mountains e.g. El
Koub Hill in Algeria, Henry Mountains in Utah U.S.A and
Fonjay Massif in Madagascar. Tsavo near voi in kenya.
• 4. Lopolith:
• Lopolith
• -a large saucer shaped igneous intrusion
formed when viscous magma intrudes into
bedding planes of a country rock.
• They form shallow depressions on the earths
surface after denudation e.g. Bushveld complex
in S. Africa and Duluth Gabbro mass in U.S.A.
• Batholiths:
• They consist of plutonic mass of magma which intruded the country
rock.
• Made of granitic rocks
• They are dome shaped due to slow cooling.
• formed at great depth and at times they are exposed at the surface by
denudational forces as Inselbergs.
• Chaila Massif in Gabon, Ikhonga-Murwe in Kakamega, ekhomo and kit
mikai near maseno .
• During the formations of batholiths the surrounding country rock was
superheated and metamorphosed forming rich metallic mineral called
meta-aureole.
 Phacolith

• -A strip of lens -shaped igneous intrusion

which forms in the crest or trough of an
anticline and sycline e.g. Corndon Hill in
England.
Phacolith
 Extrusive/Volcanic Features

• -Formed when magma reaches the earth’s

surface through vents or fissures.
• Materials come out to the surface through
two ways.
• 1. a hole/vent (vent eruption)
• 2. crack/fissure (fissure eruption).
 1. A hole/vent (vent eruption)

• Volcanoes
• A volcano is a cone shaped hill formed when
volcanic materials flow out and accumulate
around a vent. Volcanoes are classified into
three groups / stages:
• Active
• Dormant
• Extinct
• Active volcano- which is known to have erupted in
recent times e.g. OL donyo Lengai in Tanzania and
Mt. Cameroon, and Mauna Loa in Hawaii.
• Active: This is a volcano that has erupted within
the last 500 years and still shows signs of activity.
• Dormant volcano-not known to have erupted in
the recent past but show signs of volcanic activity
such as presence of hot springs, geysers and
fumaroles e.g. Mt. Kilimanjaro, Longonot and
Menengai.
• 2. Dormant: This is a volcano that has not erupted
within the last 500 years but still shows signs of
activity such as hot springs. An example is Mt.
Kilimanjaro.
• Extinct volcano- which has not shown signs of
possible future eruptions e.g. Mountains Kenya and
Elgon.
• 3. Extinct: This is a volcano that has not erupted
within the last 500 years and shows no signs of
activity. An example is Mt. Kenya, mt. Elgon.
• Types of Volcanoes
• Acidic Lava Domes
• -A steep dome shaped volcanic hill made of acidic lava.
• Viscous lava flows out through a vent.
• It accumulates around the vent because it’s viscous.
• Eruptions occur later and lava flows out covering the
layers below.
• A steep sided dome shaped mound of volcano is
formed e.g. Itasy Massif of Madagascar, Mt. Kenya and
Kilimanjaro.
• Characteristics
• Its dome-shaped
• Has steep slopes
• Made of acidic lava
• Has lava layers
• Has a narrow base
• Basic Lava Domes/Shield Volcanoes
• -A low lying volcanic hill made of basic lava.
• Basic magma flows out to the surface through a vent.
• The lava flows far before solidifying because its fluid.
• Eruptions occur later and lava spreads over the old
lava.
• A shield shaped mound of volcano is formed e.g.
Examples include Nyamulagira ranges on Uganda-
Rwanda boarder, mt. Marsabit in Kenya, Tukuyu
Mountain in southern Tanzania.
• Characteristics
• Dome/shield shaped
• Has gentle slopes
• Made of basic lava
• Has lava layers
• Has a broad base
• Ash and Cinder Cones
• A volcano built from ash and cinder or small fragments of lava.
• Violent vent eruption occurs.
• Ash and pyroclasts are emitted and thrown high.
• Some materials fall and settle around the vent forming a hill.
• Light materials are blown by wind to the leeward side e.g.
Chyulu Hills, Teleki and Likaiyu near L. Turkana. Examples in
Kenya are chyulu hills to the west of Mtito Andei, Abili Agituk,
Nabuyatom and Murniau ash cones to the south of Lake
Turkana and Longonot. Teleki and Likaiyu to the south of Lake
Turkana are cinder cones.
• Characteristics
• Made of pyroclasts
• Asymmetrical about the axis/ unproportional
• Cone shaped
• Has smooth slopes
• Has steep windward slope and gentle leeward
slope
• Composite /Complex/Stratified Volcanoes
• A volcano made of alternating layers of lava and
pyroclasts and conelets.
• The first eruption throws out pyroclasts from
broken earth surface.
• Then viscous lava flows out and solidifies on them.
• Eruption occurs later blowing the rocks sealing the
vent.
• The pieces of rock settle on earlier solidified lava.
• Another mass of lava flows out and spreads over pyroclasts
and solidifies.
• The process is repeated causing the volcano to build upwards
• The conelets are formed when magma is unable to overcome
the plug/ blocked vent and finds its way through weak lines
at the sides and then pyroclasts and lava accumulate around
the side vent e.g. Mountains Kenya, Longonot, Elgon and
Kilimanjaro.
• Examples are Mt. Kenya, Kilimanjaro in Tanzania,
Mahambura in South west Uganda, mount Cameroon in west
Africa.
• Characteristics
• Cone shaped
• Stratified (made of alternating layers of lava
and pyroclasts.
• It has conelets (parasitic cones).
• It has steep slopes.
• Made of acidic lava
• Violent eruptions
• Plug Dome/volcano/Spine
• -A column of very viscous lava which sticks above the ground.
• A column of very viscous magma flows out of the ground.
• It cools and hardens rapidly as it rises vertically.
• Pieces of rock break from the plug and accumulate on the
sides e.g. Mont Pelee in West Indies, Hyrax and Fischer’s
Tower at Hells gate in Naivasha and Devils Tower in U.S.A.
• For example, Hyrax and Fischer’s tower at Hell’s Gate near
Naivasha, Iharen in the Hoggar mountain of Algeria. Lassen
Peak in California and the Devil’s Tower in Wyoming State,
USA.
• Characteristics
• Made of very viscous lava( acidic lava).
• It is dome shaped like a mushroom germinating
out of the ground.
• Has debris on its sides.
• Has very steep sides more less vertical
• Cylindrical in shape.
• Disintegrates fast due to rocks undergoing rapid
cooling ( less resistant)
• Volcanic Plug
• -Stump of rock formed when magma which solidified inside a vent
(plug) is exposed by denudation.
• FORMATION
• A volcano is first formed.
• Lava on the sides of the volcano is eroded fast due to cooling fast.
• The lava in the vent which is hard due to slow cooling is exposed
forming a stump of rock e.g. Peaks of Mt. Kenya, Rangwa Hill and
Tororo Rock.
• Examples are the peaks of mt Kenya; Rangwe hills SW of Homa Bay
existing as the remains of Kisingiri volcano, the Tororo rocks in
Eastern Uganda.
• Characteristics
• It resembles a stump of a tree.
• Its dome shaped.
• Very steep at the top and less steep at the
bottom
• Made of hard/resistant rock
• Volcanic depressions
• 1.Crater-.
• A crater is a funnel-shaped/circular depression which forms at
the mouth of a volcanic vent.
• Craters are formed as follows
• I) During the formation of a volcano.
• When the outpouring of lava from the vent stops, the magma
in the vent cools and therefore contracts at the same time.
• This contraction and subsequent withdrawal of lava/magma
into the vent creates a depression at the top of the volcano.
• Examples are found on Mt. Marsabit, Ol Donyo
Nyoike, Central Island of Lake Turkana,
Kilimanjaro, Ol Donyo Lengai and Mahambura.
• When rainwater or snowmelt water accumulates
in the depression, a crater lake is formed.
• Examples are lake paradise on Mount Marsabit,
Lake Chala on the Kenya-Tanzania border and
Lake Magadi in the Ngorongoro crater.
• ii) Formation due to a volcanic explosion at ground
level.
• Explosion craters are flat floor depressions formed
when explosive eruptions of gases blow off the rocks
at the surface leaving a shallow circular depression.
• When explosion stops a ring crater or explosion
crater is formed.
• Water from rivers or underground may flow into the
crater to form a crater lake that is known as a Maar.
• Examples are found in south-western Uganda between
Lake George and Lake Albert. E.g. Lake Katwe- a major
source of salt in Uganda, L. Nyamuruka, Kyamwiga,
Nyungu, Nyamsingire, L. Munyanyang, L. Saka, and
Kyegere. Found in western Uganda, in Kasese, Kabarole
and Bushenyi districts.
• III) Formation of craters through non-volcanic
processes.
• Through the impact of a meteorite falling on the earth’s
surface from space, a depression may be formed as it
sinks into the rocks
• Meteor Crater, Arizona
• Water from the rains, rivers, and underground may
accumulate in it to form a lake. E.g. the depression occupied
by lake Bosumtwi-south-east of Kumasi in Ghana.
• 2) Caldera/basal wreck.
• It is an enlargement of a crater on top of volcano. It is a very
large basin-shaped depression surrounded by steep sides.
• It may be formed in the following ways
• I) Due to violent eruption.
• After eruptions, a volcano is formed and the magma in the
vent settles and solidifies firmly sealing the vent.
• a short period of dormancy may follow
• Then molten magma heats the gases and steam beneath
the volcano, which expand and try to escape to the earth,
thus exerting a lot of pressure on the rocks above.
• As the pressure piles up, the volcano explodes, blowing
off its upper part (head)
• Examples are found on Menengai, Suswa, and Longonot
in Kenya, Napaka, and Sabino in Uganda. Ngorongoro in
Tanzania. Nyamulagira and Nyiragongo DRC, the caldera
occupied by lake Toba on Sumatra Island in Indonesia.
• Some fragments from the explosion fall back on the
slopes to build it up.
• Others fall into the vent and are melted by the
magma.
• Then a large depression called an explosion caldera
is formed.
II) By cauldron or block subsidence.
• When a volcano forms, the magma reservoir below
the crust is left partly empty creating a cavity called
a cauldron or void
• The rocks of the volcano will exert pressure on
the crustal rocks over which they lie.
• Weak lines develop in the crustal rocks making
the volcano unstable.
• The weight of the volcano overcomes
resistance and its middle portion subsides into
the cauldron. This may be triggered off by an
earthquake.
• A large depression is left on top of the now
lower volcano. This depression is called a
collapse caldera.
• Examples of collapse calderas are Menengai
near Nakuru, Embagai and Ngorongoro in
northern Tanzania, lake Shala caldera in
Ethiopia, Krakatoa in Sunda Straits between
Java and Sumatra in Indonesia.
• III). Formation by outward pouring.
• A high volcano build by ash and other Pyroclasts may
become unstable in its mass due to the pressure exerted on
the material beneath by the materials at the top.
• The materials at the base begin to spread outwards as the
top of the volcano collapses inwards. This creates a
depression which forms a caldera.
• An example is the Napak caldera in north-eastern Uganda
formed due to the collapse of mount Napak.
• NB; the height of the new volcano after the formation of a
caldera is much lower than the original volcano.
• Subsequent volcanic eruption but on a minor scale,
may result in the formation of secondary cones
inside the caldera. An example is in Suswa, Meru
Gadames and Krakatoa calderas. Wizard island in
crater lake district of Oregon is a secondary cone.
• J) Lava dammed lakes.
• These are formed when lava blocks river channels.
Water pools behind leading to formation of lakes.
Examples L.Bunyonyi and L. Mutande in southwest
Uganda.
• K) Fumaroles, Solfatara and Mofettes.
• A fumarole is a subsidiary vent on a volcano
or a hole in the ground which mainly emits
gases or steam.
• A Solfatara is a hole or subsidiary vent that
emits steam and gases that are composed
mainly of sulphurous compounds.
• Mofettes are vents/ holes that emit carbon
dioxide gas and steam an example is found at
Kereita in the uplands area of Kenya at Eburu
west of Naivasha, at Ol karia in Kenya.
• NB; the source of the gases is the chemical
reactions that take place within the crustal
rocks when they are heated by magma. The
minerals in the rocks determine the type of
gases which flow out.
• L) Hot springs and geyser:
• These are features produced when heated water in
volcanic areas flow out quietly in form of hot springs or
erupt periodically shooting out water /steam in the air
as geysers.
• a) Hot springs/thermal springs.
• A hot spring is a place where hot water comes out of
the ground.
• The water may not be very hot but it may be at a
higher temperature than that of the normal water.
• Formation.
• Rainwater/river water enters the crustal rocks
through cracks and holes up to the hot rock
location.
• Magma or the hot rock itself heats the water,
some of it turning into vapour. Some of the
water collects in chambers called sumps,
within the rocks.
• The steam builds pressure causing the water in
the chambers to be superheated.
• The pressure forces the steam upwards
towards the earth’s surface through cracks and
holes in the rocks.
• As the steam is escaping to the surface, it
heats the groundwater in the surrounding
rocks.
• The ground water now under pressure finds its
way to the surface quietly as a hot spring.
• Examples of hot springs are around the shores
of Lake Magadi, Turkana basin and bogoria, at
mahi mahiu and lower slopes of Longonot
• b) A geyser
• This is a spring characterized by intermittent
discharge of water ejected turbulently and
accompanied by vapour and gases.
• The geologic conditions for formation of
geysers.
• a) Intense heat. The magma needs to be near
the surface of the earth to provide the heat
needed for geyser formation.
• b) Water. The water that is ejected from a geyser must travel
underground through deep, pressurized fissures in the earth's
crust.
• c) A plumbing system that includes a reservoir to hold the water
while being heated, fractures, fissures, porous spaces and
sometimes cavities.
• d) Constrictions in the system are essential to the building up of
pressure before an eruption.
• E.g. Geysers in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, United States.
Examples in East Africa are Kitagata in Bushenyi, Sempaya in fort
portal (Uganda), in the Rungwe mountain ranges in Tanzania, at Ol
Karia, south-west of Lake Naivasha, at the western shores of Lake
Bogoria.
 Differences
Hot spring Geyser
-Water comes out quietly. -Water and steam come out
violently.
-only water comes out. -water is accompanied by steam.
-water may just be warm. -water is very hot.
 fissure eruption.

• Lava Plains and Plateaus

• Lava plain: fairly level lowland below 500m
above sea level covered by thin lava layers.
• Lava plateau: fairly level highland/upland
above 500m above sea level covered by thick
lava layers.
 Lava plains and plateau
• -Formed by fissure eruption.
• Magma of low viscosity comes out of the ground through a
fissure.
• It flows for a long distance before cooling and solidifying
filling depressions and valleys forming a plain.
• Eruption occurs later and lava flows out through lines of
weakness on crustal rock and solidified lava.
• The new lava spreads on top of the old lava forming a new
layer.
• The process is repeated and a plateau is formed e.g. Mwea,
Nandi and Laikipia Plains and Yatta and Uasin Gishu Plateaus.
 Tuff plateau

• Tuff plateau
• It is similar to lava plateau.
• It forms from the eruption of a volcanic rock called tuff.
• It forms from a violent explosion which throws shattered
materials in the air that fall back to the ground further
from the point of eruption depending on their weight.
• The falling materials form different kinds of pyroclasts /
tephra
• Various kinds of tephra as in klb page 31
• Volcanic ash, lapili, blocks, bombs, pumice and tuff
• World Distribution of Volcanoes
• ( clearly written in comprehensive geo)
• Regions of faulting e.g. the Great Rift Valley of
E. Africa.
• Mid-Atlantic ocean ridge.
• The western coast of America.
• Zones of recent mountain building e.g. fold
mountains of S.E Asia.
• Advantages of Vulcanicity
• 1.some volcanic mountains and lava plateau
provide fertile volcanic soils which support
agriculture, e.g. Arabic coffee is grown on
mountain Elgon, Mufumbiro, Kenya and
Kilimanjaro, coffee earns the country foreign
currency and provides employment, and other
crops grown include wheat, tea, pyrethrum,
maize, bananas, vegetables, and Irish potatoes.
• 2. The highland areas are densely settled. This is due to
the fertile soils and cool climate, e.g. Bugishu, Kigezi,
Kenya and Kilimanjaro highlands. In addition some of
these areas have large towns like Kabale, Mbale, Moshi,
and Nairobi. This has led to development of commercial
activities.
• 3. Some volcanic features especially mountains are tourist
attractions. They provide sporting activities like mountain
climbing. They generate income in form of foreign
exchange and provide employment to local people.
• 4. Volcanic mountains influence climate, lead to formation
relief rainfall which is important for agriculture.
• Some mountains are ice capped. They are a source of
many rivers, which provide water for domestic use and
generate hydroelectric power.
• 5. Some are forest reserves on the slopes of mountains
like Elgon, Mufumbiro Kenya, and Kilimanjaro which are
valuable source of timber and firewood. The forests also
act as wildlife conservation areas e.g. Bwindi
impenetrable forests, has the largest population of
gorillas, which promote tourism.
• 6. Lava or magma is rich in minerals e.g. Tororo rock volcanic
plug is a source of limestone for the cement industry. Iron,
tin and uranium are found in the Mufumbiro ranges.
• Lake Katwe which is an explosion crater is a centre for salt
mining. The Kimberlitic rock in Tanzania is centre for gold
mining. Minerals provide revenue and employment.
• 7. Hot springs or Geysers are potential source of geothermal
power (electricity).in Kenya, the Olkaria Geothermal Power
Station near Lake Naivasha in Kenya, generates electricity.
• 8. There is fishing in some lava-damned lakes, which
provides food and employment.
• 9. The intrusive features Batholiths, dyke, sills,
laccoliths and Lappolith once exposed to the
surface as Inselbergs have the following
advantages;
• a) Good sites for quarrying. They are sources
of stones used for construction.
• b) Sills and Dykes once crossed by rivers create
waterfalls which are good for hydro power
generation
• c) They are tourist attractions.
• Disadvantages of Vulcanicity
• 1. Volcanic features especially mountains are
communication barriers due to steepness.
• 2. It is very expensive and risky to construct
roads and railways in the hilly areas.
• 3. Volcanic eruption leads to loss of lives and
property.
• 4. Heavy rainfall and steepness lead to soil erosion,
mass wasting and landslides which are common in
Kigezi and Elgon areas.
• 5. Mountains act as barriers to rainfall especially on the
leeward side (rain shadow areas) this causes aridity.
• 6. Intrusive features like sills and dykes form waterfalls
and rapids which hinder navigation of rivers.
• 7. Where there are Inselbergs and Batholiths make
agriculture practicing difficult.