MAP PROJECTION
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Goal of Projection
• Translate places on the Earth (3D) to Cartesian
coordinates (2D)
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Map Projections
• The systematic transformation of points
on the Earth’s surface to corresponding
points on a plane surface.
– Map projections always introduce some type of
distortion
– selection of a projection is done to minimize
distortion for the particular application
Why do we need a projection?
Creating maps
– we must choose an appropriate projection for the
map to communicate effectively
– part of good cartographic design
Sharing/receiving geographic data
– along with datum, coordinate system, we must
know the map projection in which the data are
stored
– Then we’re able to overlay maps from originally
different projections
Relevant terms
Parallels of latitude
Lines of equal latitude on the surface of a sphere
Meridian
Lines of equal longitude
Grid
Rectangular coordinate system superimposed on a
map
Graticule
Set of parallels and meridians seen on a map
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X = fx(ϕ, λ)
Y = fy(ϕ, λ)
No map projection can be made error free
These two functions should be constructed to
give minimal or negligible projection errors
The projection errors can be expressed as
differences between distances, angles or areas
on the Earth and the corresponding ones on the
map
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MAP PROJECTION CHARACTERSTICS
Linear scale is the rate of linear element ds’, in the projection
plane and the same element on the Earth,ds:
μ = ds’/ds
If we consider the linear element along the meridian
h = ds’ϕ / dsϕ ( scale along the meridian)
If we consider the linear element along the parallels
k = ds’λ / dsλ (Scale along the parallels)
h and k are fundamental parameters and they characterize a
certain map projection
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Preservation of Properties
• Map projections always introduce some
sort of distortion. How to deal with it?
• Choose a map projection that preserves the globe
properties appropriate for the application
• Note: The preservation of properties offers an alternative
-- perhaps more meaningful -- way to categorize
projections
Map projections distortion
Projections cause distortion. The projection process will
distort one or more of the four spatial properties listed below.
Distortion of these spatial properties is inherent in any map.
Shape
Area
Distance
Direction
Conformality (shape)
Shape is preserved locally (within "small"
areas)
The scale of a map at any point is constant in
all directions while the scale can vary from
point to point
Meridians and parallels intersect at right angles
The angles between any two lines on the earth
remains unchanged when the lines are
projected to the plane
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Area (also called equivalence) A map can
portray areas across it in proportional
relationship to the areas on the Earth that
they represent. Such a map projection is
called equal-area or equivalent
In equal area projections, the meridians and
parallels may not intersect at right angles
Note that no map can be both equal-area
and conformal
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Distance
Preserve distances from the center of the
projection to all other places on the map (but
from the center only)--Equidistant
Separation between parallels is uniform
No map projection maintains distance
proportionality in all directions from any
arbitrary point
Most equidistant projections have one or more
lines for which the length of the line on a map
is the same length (at map scale) as the same
line on the globe 13
• Direction: A map projection
preserves direction when azimuths
(angles from the central point or from
a point on a line to another point) are
portrayed correctly in all directions.
• True directional projection can be
conformal, equidistance or equal area
type
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Types of Map Projection
Based on the surface used for the
projection
Cylinderic Projection
Conic Projection
Azimuthal Projection (planer)
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Preservation of properties
Conformal projections
• -preserve shape
• shape preserved for local (small) areas
(angular relationships are preserved at each point)
• sacrifice preservation of area away from standard point/lines
Equivalent/Equal-Area projections
• -preserve area
• all areas are correctly sized relative to one another
• sacrifices preservation of shape away from standard
point/lines
Equidistant projections
• -preserve distance
• scale is correct from one to all other points on the map, or
along all meridians
• however, between other points on map, scale is incorrect
Azimuthal projections
• -preserve direction
• azimuths (lines of true direction) from the center point of
the projection to all other points are correct
Based on the orientation of the
axis:
Normal
Transverse
Oblique
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Based on secancy
Tangential
Secant
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Cylinderical Map projection
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General characteristics
• Lines of latitude and longitude intersection
at 90°
• Meridians are equidistant
• Forms a rectangular map
• Scale along the equator or standard parallel
is true
• Can have the properties of equidistance ,
conformality or equal area
• The poles are represented as lines
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Conical Projection
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General Characteristics
Lines of latitude and longitude are
intersecting at 90 degrees
Meridians are straight lines
Parallels are concentric circular arcs
Scale along the standard parallel is true
Can have the property of equidistance,
conformality or equal area
The pole is represented as an arc or a
point
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Azimuthal Map Projection
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General Characteristics
Lines of latitude and longitude are intersecting
at 90 degrees
Meridians are straight lines
Parallels are concentric circles
Forms a circular map
Scale near center is true
Can have the property of equidistance,
conformality or equal area
The pole is represented as a point
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Mercator Projection
Regular cylindrical projection
Particularly useful for navigation since it is conformal
Course with constant azimuth (compass direction) is straight
line
Meridians of longitude are equally spaced vertical lines
intersected at right angles by straight horizontal parallels
Large area distortion specially around the pole
Projection parameters
True scale latitude
Central meridian
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Transverse Mercator Projection
Conformal transverse cylindrical
projection
Central meridian and equator are
straight lines
Scale is constant along any meridian
Central meridian mapped at true
scale
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UTM projection
• Universe Transverse Mercator
• Conformal projection (shapes are preserved)
• Cylindrical surface
• Two standard meridians
• Zones are 6 degrees of longitude wide, total of
60 zones
UTM projection
• Scale distortion is 0.9996 along the central
meridian of a zone
• There is no scale distortion along the the
standard meridians
• Scale distortion is 1.00158 at the edge of the
zone at the equator (1.6 meters in 1000
meters)
• Scale distortion gets to unacceptable levels
beyond the edges of the zones
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
• False easting = 500 km
• False Northing = 0 for North hemisphere
• False Northing = 10000km for South hemi
• Ethiopia is in zone 36, 37, 38 and 39
• What is the central meridian?
• Central meridian = (n-30)*6 – 3
• where n is zone number
• For Zone 37 the CM is 39 E
• Ethiopia found also in North Hemisphere 34
Eastings are measured from central meridian
(with 500 km false easting for positive
coordinates) Northing measured
from the equator (with 10,000 km false northing)
Easting 447825 (6 digits)
Northing 5432953 (7 digits)
UTM - Ethiopia
Examples of
projections
Equidistant example
Azimuthal Equidistant
projection
- planar with standard
point centered on
North Korea
Right choice depends up on
• map purpose
for distribution maps: equal area
for navigation: projections that show azimuths
or angles properly
• size of area
some projections are better suited for East-West
extent, others for North-South
for small areas the projection is relatively unimportant
for large areas the projection is very important
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Conic projections for mid-latitudes
True along some parallel between the poles
and equator
Cylindrical for equatorial regions
True at the equator and distortion increases
towards the poles
Azimuthal for poles
True only at their center point but distortion
is generally worst at the edges
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