Chapter 1

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Chemistry—The Science of Everyday
Experience
Chemistry is the study of matter—its composition,
properties, and transformations.

Matter is anything that has mass and takes up volume.

Naturally occurring matter:

• cotton
• sand
• digoxin, a cardiac drug

Synthetic (human-made) matter:

• nylon
• Styrofoam
• ibuprofen
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 States of Matter
Three States of Matter—Solid, Liquid, and Gas
Solid:
• has a definite volume,
• maintains its shape regardless of its container, and
• has particles that lie close together in a regular
three-dimensional array.

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 States of Matter
Three States of Matter—Solid, Liquid, and Gas
Liquid:
• has definite volume,
• takes the shape of its container, and
• has particles that are close together, but they can

randomly move around, sliding past one another.

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 States of Matter
Three States of Matter—Solid, Liquid, and Gas
Gas:
• has no definite shape or volume,
• expands to fill the volume and assumes the
shape of whatever container it is put in, and
• has particles that are very far apart and move
around randomly.

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 States of Matter
Properties of Matter

Physical properties can be observed or measured

without changing the composition of the material.
• boiling point (bp)
• melting point (mp)
• solubility
• color
• odor

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 States of Matter
Properties of Matter

Physical change alters the material without changing

its composition:
• melting ice (solid water) to form liquid water or
• boiling liquid water to form steam (gaseous water).

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 States of Matter
Properties of Matter
Chemical properties determine how a substance can
be converted into another substance.
Chemical change, or chemical reaction, converts
one substance into another. For example:
• a piece of paper burning,
• metabolizing an apple for energy, or
• oxygen and hydrogen combining to form water.

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 Classification of Matter
Pure Substance
• is composed of a single component,
• has a constant composition, regardless of sample
size and origin of sample, and
• cannot be broken down to other pure substances
by a physical change.
• Table sugar (C12H22O11) and water (H2O) are both
pure substances.

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 Classification of Matter
Mixture
• is composed of more than one substance
• can have varying composition (any combination
of solid, liquid, and gas), depending on the sample
• can be separated into its components by a
physical change
• sugar dissolved in water = mixture

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 Classification of Matter
Element vs. Compound
An element is a A compound is a
pure substance that pure substance formed
cannot be broken down by chemically joining
by a chemical change. two or more elements.

aluminum metal (Al) table salt (NaCl)

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Classification of Matter

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 Learning Check

Identify each as: 1) solid, 2) liquid, or 3) gas.

___
A. It has a definite volume, but takes the shape of
the container.
__ B. Its particles are moving rapidly.
__ C. It fills the volume of a container.
__ D. It has particles in a fixed arrangement.
__ E. It has particles close together that are mobile.

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 Solution

Identify each as: 1) solid, 2) liquid, or 3) gas.

2 A. It has a definite volume, but takes the shape of

the container.
3 B. Its particles are moving rapidly.
3 C. It fills the volume of a container.
1 D. It has particles in a fixed arrangement.
2 E. It has particles close together that are mobile.

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 Measurement

Every measurement is composed of a number and a unit.

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 Measurement
The Importance of Units

The number is meaningless without the unit.

• proper aspirin dosage = 325 (milligrams or pounds?)

• a fast time for the 100-meter dash = 10.00 (seconds
or days?)

The English system uses units like miles (length),

gallons (volume), and pounds (weight).

The metric system uses units like meters (length),

liters (volume), and grams (mass).

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 Measurement
The Metric System of Units
Each type of measurement has a base unit.

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 Measurement
The Metric System of Units
• Other units are related to the base unit by a power of 10.
• The prefix of the unit name indicates if the unit is larger
or smaller than the base unit.

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 Measurement
Measuring Length

1,000 meters (m) = 1 kilometer (km)

1 m = 0.001 km

1 meter (m) = 100 centimeters (cm)

0.01 m = 1 cm

1 meter (m) = 1000 millimeters (mm)

0.001 m = 1 mm

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 Measurement
Measuring Mass
Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an
object.

Weight is the force that matter feels due to gravity.

1,000 grams (g) = 1 kilogram (kg)

1 g = 0.001 kg

1 gram (g) = 1,000 milligram (mg)

0.001 g = 1 mg

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 Measurement
Measuring Volume

1,000 liters (L) = 1 kiloliter (kL)

1 L = 0.001 kL

1 liters (L) = 1,000 milliliter (mL)

0.001 L = 1 L

Volume = Length x Width x Height

= cm x cm x cm
= cm3

1 mL = 1 cm3 = 1 cc

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English-Metric Equalities

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 Significant Figures
Exact and Inexact Numbers
An exact number results from counting objects or is
part of a definition.
• 10 fingers
• 10 toes
• 1 meter = 100 centimeters

An inexact number results from a measurement or

observation and contains some uncertainty.
• 15.3 cm
• 1000.8 g
• 0.0034 mL

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 Significant Figures
Determining Significant Figures
Significant figures are all the digits in a measured
number including one estimated digit.

All nonzero digits are always significant.

65.2 g 255.345 g
3 sig. figures 6 sig. figures
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 Significant Figures
Rules to Determine When a Zero
is a Significant Figure
Rule 1: A zero counts as a significant figure when
it occurs:
• between two nonzero digits, as in
29.05 g 1.0087 mL
4 sig. figures 5 sig. figures

• or at the end of a number with a decimal place.

3.7500 cm 620. lb
5 sig. figures 3 sig. figures

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 Significant Figures
Rules to Determine When a Zero
is a Significant Figure
Rule 2: A zero does not count as a significant figure
when it occurs:

• at the beginning of a number,

0.00245 mg 0.008 mL
3 sig. figures 1 sig. figure

• at the end of a number that does not have a decimal.

2570 m 1245500 m
3 sig. figures 5 sig. figures

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 Significant Figures
Rules for Multiplication and Division
The answer has the same number of significant figures
as the original number with the fewest significant
figures.

4 sig. figures

351.2 miles 63.854545 miles

=
5.5 hour hour

2 sig. figures The answer must have

2 sig. figures.

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 Significant Figures
Rules for Rounding Off Numbers
to be retained to be dropped

63.854545 miles = 64 miles

hour hour
first digit to be dropped 2 sig. figures
Answer
If the first digit
to be dropped is: Then:
• between 0 and 4 • drop it and all remaining digits

• between 5 and 9 • round up the last digit

to be retained by adding 1
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 Significant Figures
Rules for Multiplication and Division

23.2 x 1.1 = 25.52 26

3 sig. figs 2 sig. figs calculator 2 sig. figs
display

25.0 x 0.50 = 50 50.

3 sig. figs 2 sig. figs calculator 2 sig. figs
display

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 Learning Check :

110.5 x 0.048
= 5.304
= 5.3 04
= 5.3 (rounded)
4 SF 2 SF answer 2 SF

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 Significant Figures
Rules for Addition and Subtraction
The answer has the same number of decimal places
as the original number with the fewest decimal places.

10.11 kg 2 decimal places

3.6 kg 1 decimal place

6.51 kg answer must have

1 decimal place

= 6.5 kg final answer

1 decimal place
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 Learning check

235.05 + 19.6 + 2 =

235.05
+19.6
+ 2

256.65 round to 257

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 Scientific Notation

In scientific notation, a number is written as:

Exponent:
y x 10x Any positive
or negative
Coefficient: whole number
A number between
1 and 10

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 Scientific Notation
HOW TO Convert a Standard Number to Scientific Notation

Example Convert these numbers to scientific notation.

2,500 0.036

Step [1] Move the decimal point to give a number

between 1 and 10.
2500 0.036
Step [2] Multiply the result by 10x, where
x = number of places the decimal was moved.
• move decimal left, • move decimal right,
x is positive x is negative

2.5 x 103 3.6 x 10−2

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Numbers in Standard Form and
Scientific Notation

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 Scientific Notation
Converting a Number in Scientific Notation
to a Standard Number
• When the exponent x is positive, move the
decimal point x places to the right.

2.800 x 102 = 280.0

• When the exponent x is negative, move the

decimal point x places to the left.

2.80 x 10–2 = 0.0280

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 Problem Solving Using Conversion
Factors

Conversion factor is a term that converts a quantity in

one unit to a quantity in another unit.

original
original x desired
desired
conversion
conversionfactor
factor = quantity
quantity
quantity quantity

• Conversion factors are usually written as equalities.

2.20 lb = 1 kg
• To use them, they must be written as fractions.
2.20 lb or 1 kg
1 kg 2.20 lb
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 Using Conversion Factors
Solving a Problem Using One Conversion Factor
Factor-label method uses conversion factors to
convert a quantity in one unit to a quantity in
another unit:
• units are treated like numbers.
• make sure all unwanted units cancel.

To convert 130 lb into kilograms:

130 lb x conversion
conversionfactor
factor = ? kg
original desired
quantity quantity
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 Using Conversion Factors
Solving a Problem Using One Conversion Factor

2.21
2.21lb
lb
11kg
kg
Answer
130 lb x or
2 sig. figures
11kg
kg
2.21
2.21lb
lb = 59 kg

• The bottom conversion factor has

the original unit in the denominator.
• The unwanted unit lb cancels.
• The desired unit kg does not cancel.
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 Using Conversion Factors
HOW TO Solve a Problem Using Conversion Factors

How many grams of aspirin are in a 325-mg

Example
tablet?

Identify the original quantity and the desired

Step [1]
quantity, including units.
original quantity desired quantity
325 mg ?g

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 Using the Factor-Label Method
HOW TO Solve a Problem Using Conversion Factors

Step [2] Write out the conversion factor(s) needed

to solve the problem.
1 g = 1000 mg

This can be written as two possible fractions:

1000 mg or 1g
1g 1000 mg

Choose this factor to

cancel the unwanted
unit, mg. 41
 Using the Factor-Label Method
HOW TO Solve a Problem Using Conversion Factors

Step [3] Set up and solve the problem.

325 mg x 1g = 0.325 g
1000 mg
3 sig. figures 3 sig. figures
Unwanted unit
cancels

Write the answer with the correct number

Step [4]
of significant figures.
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 Using Conversion Factors
Solving a Problem Using Two or More
Conversion Factors
Always arrange the factors so that the denominator in
one term cancels the numerator in the preceding term.
How many liters are in 1.0 pint if blood?
1.0 pint ?L
original quantity desired quantity
• Two conversion factors are needed:
2 pints = 1 quart 1.06 quarts = 1 liter
2 pt or 1 qt 1.06 qt or 1L
1 qt 2 pt 1L 1.06 qt

First, cancel pt. Then, cancel qt.

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 Using Conversion Factors
Solving a Problem Using Two or More
Conversion Factors

• Set up the problem and solve:

1.0 pt x 1 qt x 1L
= 0.47 L
2 pt 1.06 qt
2 sig. figures 2 sig. figures

• Write the answer with the correct number of

significant figures.

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 Problem Solving Using Clinical
Conversion Factors
Sometimes conversion factors do not have to be
looked up in a table; they are stated in the problem.

• A patient is prescribed 1.25 g of amoxicillin, which is

available in 250-mg tablets. How many tablets are
needed?

1.25 g x 1000 mg x 1 tablet = 5 tablets

1g 250 mg

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 Temperature
Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold an object is.
Three temperature scales are used:
• degrees Fahrenheit (°F)
• degrees Celsius (°C)
• Kelvin (K)

To convert from °C to °F: To convert from °F to °C:

TTF == 1.8(T TTC == TTF −− 3232
F 1.8(TCC)) ++ 32
32 C F
1.8
1.8

To convert from °C to K: To convert from K to °C:

TTK == TTC ++ 273
273 TTC == TTK −− 273
273
K C C K
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 Temperature
Comparing the Three Temperature Scales

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 Density and Specific Gravity
Density
Density is a physical property that relates the mass of
a substance to its volume.
mass (g)
density =
volume (mL or cc)

To convert volume (mL) To convert mass (g)

to mass (g): to volume (mL):
g mL
mL x = g g x = mL
mL g

density inverse of density

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 Density and Specific Gravity
Solving Problems with Density

• Calculate the mass in grams of 15.0 mL of a saline

solution that has a density 1.05 g/mL.
15.0 mL ?g
original quantity desired quantity
• Density is the conversion factor, and can be
written two ways:
1.05 g 1 mL
1 mL 1.05 g

Choose the inverse density

to cancel the unwanted unit, mL.
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 Density and Specific Gravity
Solving Problems with Density

• Set up and solve the problem:

15.0 mL x 1.05 g
= 15.8 mL
1 mL
3 sig. figures 3 sig. figures
Unwanted unit
cancels

• Write the final answer with the correct number

of significant figures.
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 Density and Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity

Specific gravity is a quantity that compares the density

of a substance with the density of water at the
same temperature.

specific gravity = density of a substance (g/mL)

density of water (g/mL)

• The units of the numerator (g/mL) cancel the

units of the denominator (g/mL).

• The specific gravity of a substance is equal to its

density, but contains no units.
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