Data Mining

Pattern Evaluation

Data Mining Trends and Research Frontiers

PART 7

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Professor of AI & Intelligent Systems
Sana’a University
Topics
 Introduction
 Data pre-processing
 Association rules and sequential patterns
 Classification (supervised learning)
 Post-processing of data mining results
 Measures of Interestingness
 Objective Measures
 Subjective Measures
 Data Mining Trends
 Data Mining Research Frontiers
2
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Data Mining

+ =
Interestingness Hidden
Data criteria patterns

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Data Mining Type
of
Patterns

+ =
Interestingness Hidden
Data criteria patterns

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Data Mining
Type of data Type of
Interestingness criteria

+ =
Interestingness Hidden
Data criteria patterns

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

 Data Mining Challenges

 Problem 1: most patterns are not

interesting

 Problem 2: patterns may be inexact or

completely fake when noisy data present

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

 Data Mining: A KDD Process

Pattern Evaluation
 Data mining: the core of
knowledge discovery
Data Mining
process.
Task-relevant Data

Data Selection
Warehouse
Data Cleaning

Data Integration

Databases
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
KDD Process

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

 Are All the “Discovered” Patterns
Interesting?

 Interestingness measures: A pattern is

interesting if it is easily understood by humans,
valid on new or test data with some degree of
certainty, potentially useful, novel, or validates
some hypothesis that a user seeks to confirm

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Criteria to Evaluate the “Interestingness”
of Discovered Patterns

useful

Amount of Difficulty of
Research novel, unexpectedness measurement

comprehensible

valid (accurate)

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

 Are All the “Discovered” Patterns
Interesting?

 Objective vs. subjective measures:

 Objective: based on statistics and structures of
patterns
 support and confidence
 Subjective: based on user’s belief in the data
 unexpectedness, novelty, action ability, etc.

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Data-driven vs user-driven rule
interestingness measures

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

 Can We Find All and Only Interesting
Patterns?

 Completeness - Find all the interesting

patterns
 Can a data mining system find all the interesting
patterns?
 Association vs. classification vs. clustering

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

 Can We Find All and Only Interesting
Patterns?

 Optimization - Search for only interesting patterns

 Can a data mining system find only the interesting
patterns?
 Approaches
 First general all the patterns and then filter out the
uninteresting ones
 Mining query optimization

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

 Major Issues in Data Mining

 Mining methodology and user interaction

 Mining different kinds of knowledge in databases
 Incorporation of background knowledge
 Handling noise and incomplete data
 Pattern evaluation: the interestingness problem
 Expression and visualization of data mining results

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

 Major Issues in Data Mining

 Performance and scalability

 Efficiency of data mining algorithms
 Parallel, distributed and incremental mining
methods
 Issues relating to the diversity of data types
 Handling relational and complex types of data
 Mining information from diverse databases

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

 Major Issues in Data Mining

 Issues related to applications and social

impacts
 Application of discovered knowledge
 Domain-specific data mining tools
 Intelligent query answering

 Expert systems

 Process control and decision making

 A knowledge fusion problem

 Protection of data security, integrity, and privacy
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
 Summary

 Data mining: discovering interesting patterns

from large amounts of data
 A KDD process includes data cleaning, data
integration, data selection, transformation, data
mining, pattern evaluation, and knowledge
presentation

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

 Summary
 Mining can be performed in a variety of
information repositories
 Data mining functionalities: characterization,
association, classification, clustering, outlier
and trend analysis, etc.
 Classification of data mining systems
 Major issues in data mining
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Data Mining Trends and
Research Frontiers
 Mining Complex Types of Data
 Other Methodologies of Data Mining
 Data Mining Applications
 Data Mining and Society
 Data Mining Trends
 Summary
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Mining Complex Types of Data

 Mining Sequence Data

 Mining Time Series
 Mining Symbolic Sequences
 Mining Biological Sequences
 Mining Graphs and Networks
 Mining Other Kinds of Data
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Mining Sequence Data
 Similarity Search in Time Series Data
 Subsequence match, dimensionality reduction, query-based similarity
search, motif-based similarity search
 Regression and Trend Analysis in Time-Series Data
 long term + cyclic + seasonal variation + random movements
 Sequential Pattern Mining in Symbolic Sequences
 GSP, PrefixSpan, constraint-based sequential pattern mining
 Sequence Classification
 Feature-based vs. sequence-distance-based vs. model-based
 Alignment of Biological Sequences
 Pair-wise vs. multi-sequence alignment, substitution matirces, BLAST
 Hidden Markov Model for Biological Sequence Analysis
 Markov chain vs. hidden Markov models, forward vs. Viterbi vs. Baum-
Welch algorithms Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Mining Graphs and Networks
 Graph Pattern Mining
 Frequent subgraph patterns, closed graph patterns, gSpan vs. CloseGraph
 Statistical Modeling of Networks
 Small world phenomenon, power law (log-tail) distribution, densification
 Clustering and Classification of Graphs and Homogeneous Networks
 Clustering: Fast Modularity vs. SCAN
 Classification: model vs. pattern-based mining
 Clustering, Ranking and Classification of Heterogeneous Networks
 RankClus, RankClass, and meta path-based, user-guided methodology
 Role Discovery and Link Prediction in Information Networks
 PathPredict
 Similarity Search and OLAP in Information Networks: PathSim, GraphCube
 Evolution of Social and Information Networks: EvoNetClus
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Mining Other Kinds of Data
 Mining Spatial Data
 Spatial frequent/co-located patterns, spatial clustering and classification
 Mining Spatiotemporal and Moving Object Data
 Spatiotemporal data mining, trajectory mining, periodica, swarm, …
 Mining Cyber-Physical System Data
 Applications: healthcare, air-traffic control, flood simulation
 Mining Multimedia Data
 Social media data, geo-tagged spatial clustering, periodicity analysis, …
 Mining Text Data
 Topic modeling, i-topic model, integration with geo- and networked data
 Mining Web Data
 Web content, web structure, and web usage mining
 Mining Data Streams
 Prof. outlier
Dynamics, one-pass, patterns, clustering, classification, Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
detection
Data Mining Trends and
Research Frontiers
 Mining Complex Types of Data
 Other Methodologies of Data Mining
 Data Mining Applications
 Data Mining and Society
 Data Mining Trends
 Summary
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Other Methodologies of Data
Mining
 Statistical Data Mining
 Views on Data Mining Foundations
 Visual and Audio Data Mining

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Major Statistical Data Mining
Methods
 Regression
 Generalized Linear Model
 Analysis of Variance
 Mixed-Effect Models
 Factor Analysis
 Discriminant Analysis
 Survival Analysis
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Statistical Data Mining (1)

 There are many well-established statistical techniques for data

analysis, particularly for numeric data
 applied extensively to data from scientific experiments and data

from economics and the social sciences

 Regression
predict the value of a response


(dependent) variable from one or more

predictor (independent) variables where
the variables are numeric
forms of regression: linear, multiple,
weighted, polynomial, nonparametric,
and robust

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Scientific and Statistical Data Mining (2)

 Generalized linear models

 allow a categorical response variable (or

some transformation of it) to be related

to a set of predictor variables
 similar to the modeling of a numeric

response variable using linear

regression
 include logistic regression and Poisson

regression  Mixed-effect models

 For analyzing grouped data, i.e. data that can be classified according
to one or more grouping variables
 Typically describe relationships between a response variable and some
covariates in data grouped according to one or more factors

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Scientific and Statistical Data Mining (3)

 Regression trees
 Binary trees used for classification
and prediction
 Similar to decision trees:Tests are
performed at the internal nodes
 In a regression tree the mean of the
objective attribute is computed and
used as the predicted value
 Analysis of variance
 Analyze experimental data for two or
more populations described by a
numeric response variable and one
or more categorical variables
(factors)
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Statistical Data Mining (4)

 Factor analysis
 determine which variables are
combined to generate a given factor
 e.g., for many psychiatric data, one
can indirectly measure other
quantities (such as test scores) that
reflect the factor of interest
 Discriminant analysis
 predict a categorical response
variable, commonly used in social
science
 Attempts to determine several
discriminant functions (linear
combinations of the independent
variables) that discriminate among
the groups defined by the response
variable
www.spss.com/datamine/factor.htm
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Statistical Data Mining (5)

 Time series: many methods such as autoregression,

ARIMA (Autoregressive integrated moving-average
modeling), long memory time-series modeling
 Quality control: displays group summary charts
 Survival analysis
Predicts the probability that a patient
undergoing a medical treatment would
survive at least to time t (life span
prediction)

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Other Methodologies of Data
Mining
 Statistical Data Mining
 Views on Data Mining Foundations
 Visual and Audio Data Mining

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Views on Data Mining Foundations (I)
 Data reduction
 Basis of data mining: Reduce data representation
 Trades accuracy for speed in response
 Data compression
 Basis of data mining: Compress the given data by
encoding in terms of bits, association rules, decision
trees, clusters, etc.
 Probability and statistical theory
 Basis of data mining: Discover joint probability
distributions of random variables

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

 Views on Data Mining Foundations (II)
 Microeconomic view
 A view of utility: Finding patterns that are interesting only to the
extent in that they can be used in the decision-making process of
some enterprise
 Pattern Discovery and Inductive databases
 Basis of data mining: Discover patterns occurring in the database,
such as associations, classification models, sequential patterns,
etc.
 Data mining is the problem of performing inductive logic on
databases
 The task is to query the data and the theory (i.e., patterns) of the
database
 Popular among many researchers in database systems

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Other Methodologies of Data
Mining

 Statistical Data Mining

 Views on Data Mining Foundations
 Visual and Audio Data Mining

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

 Visual Data Mining
 Visualization: Use of computer graphics to create visual
images which aid in the understanding of complex, often
massive representations of data
 Visual Data Mining: discovering implicit but useful
knowledge from large data sets using visualization
techniques
Multimedia
Systems Human
Computer
Computer
Graphics
Interfaces

Visual Data Mining

High Performance
Computing Pattern
Recognition

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Visualization

 Purpose of Visualization
 Gain insight into an information space by mapping
data onto graphical primitives
 Provide qualitative overview of large data sets
 Search for patterns, trends, structure, irregularities,
relationships among data.
 Help find interesting regions and suitable parameters
for further quantitative analysis.
 Provide a visual proof of computer representations
derived

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Visual Data Mining & Data Visualization

 Integration of visualization and data mining

 data visualization

 data mining result visualization

 data mining process visualization

 interactive visual data mining

 Data visualization
 Data in a database or data warehouse can be viewed

 at different levels of abstraction

 as different combinations of attributes or

dimensions
 Data can be presented in various visual forms

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Data Mining Result Visualization
 Presentation of the results or knowledge obtained from
data mining in visual forms
 Examples
 Scatter plots and boxplots (obtained from descriptive
data mining)
 Decision trees
 Association rules
 Clusters
 Outliers
 Generalized rules
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Boxplots from Statsoft: Multiple Variable Combinations

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Visualization of Data Mining Results in SAS Enterprise Miner: Scatter Plots

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Visualization of Association Rules in SGI/MineSet 3.0

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Visualization of a Decision Tree in SGI/MineSet 3.0

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Visualization of Cluster Grouping in IBM Intelligent Miner

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Data Mining Process Visualization

 Presentation of the various processes of data mining in

visual forms so that users can see
 Data extraction process
 Where the data is extracted
 How the data is cleaned, integrated, preprocessed,
and mined
 Method selected for data mining
 Where the results are stored
 How they may be viewed
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Visualization of Data Mining Processes by Clementine

See your solution

discovery
process clearly

Understand
variations with
visualized data

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Interactive Visual Data Mining

 Using visualization tools in the data mining process to

help users make smart data mining decisions
 Example
 Display the data distribution in a set of attributes using
colored sectors or columns (depending on whether the
whole space is represented by either a circle or a set
of columns)
 Use the display to which sector should first be
selected for classification and where a good split point
for this sector may be

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Interactive Visual Mining by Perception-Based
Classification (PBC)

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Audio Data Mining

 Uses audio signals to indicate the patterns of data or

the features of data mining results
 An interesting alternative to visual mining
 An inverse task of mining audio (such as music)
databases which is to find patterns from audio data
 Visual data mining may disclose interesting patterns
using graphical displays, but requires users to
concentrate on watching patterns
 Instead, transform patterns into sound and music and
listen to pitches, rhythms, tune, and melody in order to
identify anything interesting or unusual

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Data Mining Trends and
Research Frontiers
 Mining Complex Types of Data
 Other Methodologies of Data Mining
 Data Mining Applications
 Data Mining and Society
 Data Mining Trends
 Summary
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Data Mining Applications
 Data mining: A young discipline with broad and diverse
applications
 There still exists a nontrivial gap between generic data

mining methods and effective and scalable data mining

tools for domain-specific applications
 Some application domains (briefly discussed here)
 Data Mining for Financial data analysis

 Data Mining for Retail and Telecommunication

Industries
 Data Mining in Science and Engineering

 Data Mining for Intrusion Detection and Prevention

 Data Mining and Recommender Systems

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Data Mining for Financial Data Analysis (I)
 Financial data collected in banks and financial institutions
are often relatively complete, reliable, and of high quality
 Design and construction of data warehouses for
multidimensional data analysis and data mining
 View the debt and revenue changes by month, by
region, by sector, and by other factors
 Access statistical information such as max, min, total,
average, trend, etc.
 Loan payment prediction/consumer credit policy analysis
 feature selection and attribute relevance ranking

 Loan payment performance

 Consumer credit rating

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

 Data Mining for Financial Data Analysis (II)
 Classification and clustering of customers for targeted
marketing
 multidimensional segmentation by nearest-neighbor,

classification, decision trees, etc. to identify customer

groups or associate a new customer to an appropriate
customer group
 Detection of money laundering and other financial crimes
 integration of from multiple DBs (e.g., bank

transactions, federal/state crime history DBs)

 Tools: data visualization, linkage analysis,

classification, clustering tools, outlier analysis, and

sequential pattern analysis tools (find unusual access
sequences)
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Data Mining for Retail & Telcomm. Industries (I)

 Retail industry: huge amounts of data on sales, customer

shopping history, e-commerce, etc.
 Applications of retail data mining
 Identify customer buying behaviors
 Discover customer shopping patterns and trends
 Improve the quality of customer service
 Achieve better customer retention and satisfaction
 Enhance goods consumption ratios
 Design more effective goods transportation and
distribution policies
 Telcomm. and many other industries: Share many similar
goals and expectations of retail data mining
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Data Mining Practice for Retail Industry

 Design and construction of data warehouses

 Multidimensional analysis of sales, customers, products, time, and
region
 Analysis of the effectiveness of sales campaigns
 Customer retention: Analysis of customer loyalty
 Use customer loyalty card information to register sequences of
purchases of particular customers
 Use sequential pattern mining to investigate changes in customer
consumption or loyalty
 Suggest adjustments on the pricing and variety of goods
 Product recommendation and cross-reference of items
 Fraudulent analysis and the identification of usual patterns
 Use of visualization tools in data analysis
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Data Mining in Science and Engineering
 Data warehouses and data preprocessing
 Resolving inconsistencies or incompatible data collected in
diverse environments and different periods (e.g. eco-system
studies)
 Mining complex data types
 Spatiotemporal, biological, diverse semantics and relationships
 Graph-based and network-based mining
 Links, relationships, data flow, etc.
 Visualization tools and domain-specific knowledge
 Other issues
 Data mining in social sciences and social studies: text and social
media
 Data mining in computer science: monitoring systems, software
bugs, network intrusion
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Data Mining for Intrusion Detection and
Prevention
 Majority of intrusion detection and prevention systems use
 Signature-based detection: use signatures, attack patterns that are
preconfigured and predetermined by domain experts
 Anomaly-based detection: build profiles (models of normal
behavior) and detect those that are substantially deviate from the
profiles
 What data mining can help
 New data mining algorithms for intrusion detection
 Association, correlation, and discriminative pattern analysis help
select and build discriminative classifiers
 Analysis of stream data: outlier detection, clustering, model shifting
 Distributed data mining
 Visualization and querying tools

Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Data Mining and Recommender Systems

 Recommender systems: Personalization, making product

recommendations that are likely to be of interest to a user
 Approaches: Content-based, collaborative, or their hybrid
 Content-based: Recommends items that are similar to items the
user preferred or queried in the past
 Collaborative filtering: Consider a user's social environment,
opinions of other customers who have similar tastes or preferences
 Data mining and recommender systems
 Users C × items S: extract from known to unknown ratings to
predict user-item combinations
 Memory-based method often uses k-nearest neighbor approach
 Model-based method uses a collection of ratings to learn a model
(e.g., probabilistic models, clustering, Bayesian networks, etc.)
 Hybrid approaches integrate both to improve performance (e.g.,
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Data Mining Trends and
Research Frontiers
 Mining Complex Types of Data
 Other Methodologies of Data Mining
 Data Mining Applications
 Data Mining and Society
 Data Mining Trends
 Summary
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Ubiquitous and Invisible Data Mining
 Ubiquitous Data Mining
 Data mining is used everywhere, e.g., online shopping
 Ex. Customer relationship management (CRM)
 Invisible Data Mining
 Invisible: Data mining functions are built in daily life operations
 Ex. Google search: Users may be unaware that they are
examining results returned by data
 Invisible data mining is highly desirable
 Invisible mining needs to consider efficiency and scalability, user
interaction, incorporation of background knowledge and
visualization techniques, finding interesting patterns, real-time, …
 Further work: Integration of data mining into existing business
and scientific technologies to provide domain-specific data mining
tools
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Privacy, Security and Social Impacts of Data
Mining
 Many data mining applications do not touch personal data
 E.g., meteorology, astronomy, geography, geology, biology, and
other scientific and engineering data
 Many DM studies are on developing scalable algorithms to find general
or statistically significant patterns, not touching individuals
 The real privacy concern: unconstrained access of individual records,
especially privacy-sensitive information
 Method 1: Removing sensitive IDs associated with the data
 Method 2: Data security-enhancing methods
 Multi-level security model: permit to access to only authorized level
 Encryption: e.g., blind signatures, biometric encryption, and
anonymous databases (personal information is encrypted and stored
at different locations)
 Method 3: Privacy-preserving data mining methods
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Privacy-Preserving Data Mining
 Privacy-preserving (privacy-enhanced or privacy-sensitive) mining:
 Obtaining valid mining results without disclosing the underlying

sensitive data values

 Often needs trade-off between information loss and privacy

 Privacy-preserving data mining methods:

 Randomization (e.g., perturbation): Add noise to the data in order

to mask some attribute values of records

 K-anonymity and l-diversity: Alter individual records so that they

cannot be uniquely identified

 k-anonymity: Any given record maps onto at least k other records
 l-diversity: enforcing intra-group diversity of sensitive values
 Distributed privacy preservation: Data partitioned and distributed
either horizontally, vertically, or a combination of both
 Downgrading the effectiveness of data mining: The output of data
mining may violate privacy
 Modify data or mining results, e.g., hiding some association rules or slightly
distorting some classification models
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Data Mining Trends and Research
Frontiers
 Mining Complex Types of Data
 Other Methodologies of Data Mining
 Data Mining Applications
 Data Mining and Society
 Data Mining Trends
 Summary
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Trends of Data Mining
 Application exploration: Dealing with application-specific problems
 Scalable and interactive data mining methods
 Integration of data mining with Web search engines, database
systems, data warehouse systems and cloud computing systems
 Mining social and information networks
 Mining spatiotemporal, moving objects and cyber-physical systems
 Mining multimedia, text and web data
 Mining biological and biomedical data
 Data mining with software engineering and system engineering
 Visual and audio data mining
 Distributed data mining and real-time data stream mining
 Privacy protection and information security in data mining
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Data Mining Trends and Research
Frontiers ‫الحدود‬
 Mining Complex Types of Data
 Other Methodologies of Data Mining
 Data Mining Applications
 Data Mining and Society
 Data Mining Trends
 Summary
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
 Summary
 We present a high-level overview of mining complex data types
 Statistical data mining methods, such as regression, generalized linear
models, analysis of variance, etc., are popularly adopted
 Researchers also try to build theoretical foundations for data mining
 Visual/audio data mining has been popular and effective
 Application-based mining integrates domain-specific knowledge with
data analysis techniques and provide mission-specific solutions
 Ubiquitous data mining and invisible data mining are penetrating our
data lives
 Privacy and data security are importance issues in data mining, and
privacy-preserving data mining has been developed recently
 Our discussion on trends in data mining shows that data mining is a
promising, young field, with great, strategic importance
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
References and Further Reading
 The books lists a lot of references for further reading. Here we only list a few books

 E. Alpaydin. Introduction to Machine Learning, 2nd ed., MIT Press, 2011

 S. Chakrabarti. Mining the Web: Statistical Analysis of Hypertex and Semi-Structured Data. Morgan
Kaufmann, 2002
 R. O. Duda, P. E. Hart, and D. G. Stork. Pattern Classification, 2ed., Wiley-Interscience, 2000
 D. Easley and J. Kleinberg. Networks, Crowds, and Markets: Reasoning about a Highly Connected World.
Cambridge University Press, 2010.
 U. Fayyad, G. Grinstein, and A. Wierse (eds.), Information Visualization in Data Mining and Knowledge
Discovery, Morgan Kaufmann, 2001
 J. Han, M. Kamber, J. Pei. Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques. Morgan Kaufmann, 3rd ed. 2011
 T. Hastie, R. Tibshirani, and J. Friedman. The Elements of Statistical Learning: Data Mining, Inference,
and Prediction, 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, 2009
 D. Koller and N. Friedman. Probabilistic Graphical Models: Principles and Techniques. MIT Press, 2009.
 B. Liu. Web Data Mining, Springer 2006.
 T. M. Mitchell. Machine Learning, McGraw Hill, 1997
 M. Newman. Networks: An Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2010.
 P.-N. Tan, M. Steinbach and V. Kumar, Introduction to Data Mining, Wiley, 2005
 I. H. Witten and E. Frank, Data Mining: Practical Machine Learning Tools and Techniques with Java
Implementations, Morgan Kaufmann, 2nd ed. 2005
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami
Thank you !!!
Prof. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami