UNIT FIVE

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE

EARLY 16th TO THE END OF THE 18th CENTURIES

Topical presentation/outline/
 Conflicts b/n the Xn-Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates and
foreign interventions w/c resulted in Religious Controversies.
The pop/movts of the Afar, the Somali, the Argoba and the Oromo;
Interaction of peoples and the resultant integration across ethnic
and religious diversities
 Peoples and states in Eastern, Central, Southern & Western
regions
Gondarine Period (1636-1769),& Zemene Mesafint (1769-1855)
including the Yejju rule (1786-1853).
 5.1. Conflict between the Christian K/dom and the
Sultanate of Adal and After
The revival of LDT caused competition & struggle
for control over this trade routes b/n the two
They masked it by wars for religious supremacy as
depicted in historical accounts of Christian &
Muslim clerics.
The interest to control trade routes lay at the heart
of the conflict continued from1529 to 1543.
 Cont..,
 Because of the conflicts among Muslim Sultanates that
resulted in; internal strife, corruption & anarchy
intensified urgent need for a new leadership character.
 so, Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi who fit this need
come to power.
 Imam Ahmed, alias “the left handed,” was born at
Hubet in b/n Dire Dawa &Jigjiga & raised by his devout
Muslim kin on the route to Zeila.
 Even though, his origin was obscure, he was a devout
Muslim to lead their case. He soldiered for Garad Abun
of Adal, who during his few years in power called for
Islamic Puritanism /very strict moral attitude.
 Cont..,

 According to local tradition, when Garad Abun died,

Imam withdrew to countryside, & started calling for
devotion to the teachings of Islam.
 After Imam Ahmad’s rise to power, battles were just
fought mainly because of environmental
pressure; pastoralists in Afar & Somali pushing
to approach Harar & Xn Kingdom. Here,
controlling the LDT route to Zeila was become
the 2nd reason.
 Here came fundamental change in the cause of
confrontations.
 Cont..,
For centuries, lowland Muslim pastoralists had
attempted to expand to high plateaus for enough
pasturelands but held back by the Xn army.
 With increased population & overgrazing in
Somali & Afar b/n 13th & 16thc, raiding &
counter-raiding at water holes or animal
rustling/theft intensified.
 It was one of the Imam’s remarkable
achievements in leadership that he mobilized
pastoral communities of Afar, Somali, Harla,
Harari & others to a common cause.
 Cont..,
 He convinced them not to fight amongst themselves but to
unite and expand to the Xn Kingdom & to resolve their
pressing material needs while keeping Islamic
doctrines/practices from any alien infiltration.
 He was able to gain acceptance as Imam & consolidated
his army to fight Xn-Kingdom.
 Meanwhile, 11 years old Lebne-Dengel was enthroned
with regent Elleni and, due to internal conflicts in Adal,
he waged war & scored significant victories in early 16th c.
 As a result, most of Muslim States including Adal were
made tributaries of Christian Kingdom.
 Cont..,

 However, shortly, Adal fell to Imam Ahmed’s army.

 In 1520, Imam Ahmed was very strong for military
confrontation. So, he refused to pay tribute & opened war
against Christian Kingdom in 1527.
 The Imam’s army fought fiercely & controlled territories
including Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya and
Kambata and putting the Xn Kingdom at risk in 1527.
 In 1528, realizing the rising threat, L. Dengel mobilazed vast
force & encamped c. 15km east of what is now Addis Ababa.
 But his army leadership had problems of logistic and war
strategy was failed to defeat Adal’s force w/c even though
small in number, logistically better enough than Xn army.
 Cont..,

 The Imam had also an excellent army leadership with

better mobility & flexible tactics with a unified
command.
 As a result, the larger & well-equipped Xn army was
defeated at the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529,
near Mojo.
Then, Imam controlled many territories of Xn
Kingdom like; Shewa, Amhara, Lasta, & moved as
far north as Mereb Melash.
 By 1535, Imam Ahmed’s empire stretched from Zeila
to Massawa including the Ethiopian interior.
 Cont..,
 Then, Imam Ahmed established a civil administrative
bureaucracy constituted from:- his own men & newly
recruited personnel from Christian territories.
 One of the most illuminating figures during the war was the
wife of the Imam, called Bati Del Wanbara.
 She was the daughter of a military commander of Adal
known as Mahfuz. So, Del Wanbara had encouraged her
husband to avenge the death of her father while fought with
Xns.
 She accompanied her husband throughout his expeditions
and she is said to have marched even in a state of pregnancy
during which she was unable to use mules.
 Cont..,
 Indeed, she delivered her two sons during the campaigns of 1531
&1533 in Ifat & present day Tigray respectively
 Due to the military set back, Lebne Dengel was
retreated & finally dying in 1540 as a fugitive.
 Then, his son & successor, Gelawdewos (1540-
59), continued to face wars with more intensity
as Im. Ahmed had received 200 Turkish
musketeers.
 In meantime, based on earlier request made by
Lebne Dengel in 1535, about 400 Portuguese
soldiers led by Christopher da Gama, arrived in
Xn court; armed with matchlocks in 1541.
 Cont..,

 However, in 1542 Xn army again was defeated

at Ofla, in today's southern Tigray.
 In the battle, c. 200 Portuguese were killed &
their leader Ch. da Gama was beheaded.
 However, Lebne-Dengel's wife Seblewongel
played great role after her husband death.
She is said to have participated in the war against
Imam Ahmed in 1542 when army of Xn-
Kingdom lost almost half of the Portuguese
soldiers.
 Cont..,

After Ofla success, Imam Ahmed become

complaisance with his army’s ability to repulse
any future attack; sent his allies back home and
let his army camp.
 But, Gelawdewos on his part, in preparation for
final confrontation & due to limited resources,
he used “hit & run” strategy, which severely
affected Imam’s army as Advised by Queen
Seble-Wongel.
 B/c of this, Imam did not know where the
attacks came from.
 Cont..,

On Feb. 25, 1543 while Imam Ahmed was

encamped near Lake Tana, he was attacked &
killed at the battle of Woyna-Dega.
Soon after the battle, Gelawdewos was confident
& nobility and his army became loyal to him.
As a result, the king restored possession of
almost all northern & central plateau.
Muslim communities in the highlands submitted
to him & Gelawdewos was tolerant toward
muslims to promote national conciliation and
revive smooth relations with the Muslim world.
 Cont..,
Besides, Gelawdewos was able to restore many
of pre-1520s territories & tributary regions.
The king attempted to reconsolidate the state
through campaigns to different areas &
camping Chewa (regiment) in border areas.
But, Adal under the new leadership of Nur
Ibn al-Waazir Mujahid was ready to wage war
of revenge against Xn K/dom.
 In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted
Gelawdewos & killed the king.
 Cont..,

After Gelawdwos, Minas (r.1559-

1563) succeeded and assumed
power. He;
Defeated the Turkish force &
Reclaimed the lost territories including
Dabarwa.
 Cont’d…
By the early 1560s, Yishaq revolted supporting the Turks against
the reigning Minas.

Later, similarly Sartsa Dengle (r.1563-1598) also fought with

internal and external forces during his time.
 External threat from Turks
 Internal the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama, Enarya and
the Oromo.

The Turks were defeated in the north and territories were

regained.
 Consequences of the Muslim-Christian War

Human and material destruction,

Both powers found weak that easied success of the

Oromos pop/ movement,

Cultural interaction among people of the country,

The Muslim-Christian world competition for over seas

supremacy,

The weakening of the power of the EOC

 5.2. Foreign Intervention and
Religious Controversies
During the war with the Muslim Sultanates, the Christian
rulers made an alliance with the Roman Catholics to secure
fire arms.

 In 1557 catholic missionaries with their bishop, Andreas

de Oviedo, came to expand the religion

The Jesuit missionaries came with a different doctrine to the

EOC about the nature of Christ.

The EOC accepts the union the divine and human nature
of Christ is inseparable.

Key Catholic missionaries of the period Joao Bermudez,

Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez, and Alfonso Mendez
 Cont’d…
The missionaries approached Gelawdewos first but were
unsuccessful.

Minas and Sartsa Dengle didn’t get time to engage

with the Catholics focusing on local issues.

The Catholics succeeded with Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4) but

his pd was short for their influence.

Later, Za-Dengel was deposed by Yaqob (r. 1598-1603;

1604-7) who also was challenged by Susenyos (r. 1607-
32).

Provincial leaders refused to pay tribute to

Susenyosso, he integrated the Oromos with the
 Cont’d…
By 1612, Susenyos was converted to Catholicism and

In 1622 announced Catholicism to be the state religion.

Different reforms were made:

 Reconsecration of the Orthodox priests and deacons
 Rebaptism of the mass
 Suspension of Old Testament customs male circumcision and the
observance of the Sabbath
 Prohibition of preaching in Ge’ez
 Prohibition of fasting on Wednesday and Friday
 Prohibition of respect for Ethiopian saints and the Ark of Covenant
(Tabot)

The Emperor ordered:

eating pork/pig.
The use of Latin Mass/Qurban/ and Gregorian Calendar.
Finally, the emperor faced a challenge from including his son,
 Cont’d…
This resulted in religious controversy and the loss of many lives.
Finally, by 1632, Susenyos resigned in favor of his son, Faselidas, and
he restored every thing.
 Reversed Catholicism
 Restored the position of the EOC as the state religion
 Expelled the missionaries
 Punished local converts
 Introduced a close-door policy to the west but opened his door to the east

Only James Bruce (1769) and Charles Jacques Poncet (1700) visited
Ethiopia from the west during this time.

Due to Catholics influence the three doctrinal differences emerged

within the EOC Tewahedo/Hulet Lidet (divinity and humanity
united); Qibat/unction eternal birth and Holy Ghost anointment;
Sost Lidet born through Grace, born to the womb of Mary, and
anointed by Holy Ghost.
 Cont…,

B/c of this, EOC were suffered severe theological controversies during

Gondarine period ignited by the Jesuits.
The Jesuit missionaries had propagated the Catholic doctrine of two
different and separate-Divine and Human-natures of Christ.
Therefore, religious controversy in EOC revolves, around the dogma of
Christ.
The clergy came up with varying refutations of the doctrine under two
antagonistic theories of Hulet Lidet(2Births) &Sost Lidet(3 Births).
 Hulet Lidet- teaches two births of Christ, first in eternity as a Divine being
the eternal birth and second, born again by St. Mary into the world as a
perfect man and perfect divinity united in one nature thus, Tewahedo
(united).
 Hulet Lidet was represented therefore by the old doctrine of Tewahedo
 Cont…,

 Sost Lidet- followers developed a theory that Christ was

first born in eternity, as a divine and born again in the
Womb of St. Mary and anointed by the Holy Ghost and
nine months later he was born by Mary into the World.
Therefore, they came to be known as Ye-Tsega Lij (son
of Grace).
Qebat (Unction)-Ande Lidet-(One Births)- was another
doctrine developed from Hulet Lidet theory.
Qebat accepted the eternal birth as the first birth of
Christ, but claimed that at the moment of his
incarnation, when he was born in to the World, he was
anointed by the Holy Ghost.
Therefore, this theory teaches that Christ was a perfect
man and a perfect God united in one inseparable nature.
 Cont…,

The attempts of Fasiladas and some of his successor to

resolve ecclesiastical differences were unsuccessful.
B/c of this, ecclesiastical controversy took regional &
political character.
Qebat doctrine became political ideology of the nobility
of Gojjam.
 Ye Tsega Lij had strong hold first in Gondar and then in
shawa and
Hulet Lidet(Tewahedo) in Tigray and Lasta.
This theological controversy affected the politics of the
country for more than two centuries b/c, regional rulers
supported one or another of these doctrines.
 Its impact became more disastrous during Zemene-
Mesafent.
 5.3. Population Movements
Reasons for the population movement include:
Push and pull factors →are Natural and social factors.
Peoples in search of resources and better living
conditions move here & there.
In Ethiopia & horn of Africa conflict, drought, and
demographic factors In Ethiopia and the Horn

During the medieval period, its effects were:

Peoples integration
Religious, ethnic and linguistic interactions and
Intermingling of people.

The specific result of the popŋ mov’t are:

Intermarriage of peoples, change of residence, an
original culture, and evolution of new identities.
 5.3.1. Population Movements of the
Argoba, Afar, and Somali
This partly resulted from the Muslim-Christian
conflict of the late 15th to early 16th centuries.

Environmental pressure was also another factor

as the area was located through which the trade
route passes and was affected by conflicts.

The people had been oscillating in response to

the conflict in the region.

Trade was a major agent of Islamic expansion and

Muslim state formations.
 A. The Argobba
The Argoba were major agents of:-
 Islamic expansion, trade & Muslim state formation in the Horn
For e.g, sultanate of Shewa & Ifat established by the
Makhzumite & Walasma Dynasties respectively.
The Sultanate of Shewa moved eastward to escape the
influence of the Christian kingdom.
Then the Sultanate of Ifat, in which the Argobba were
dominant, became the center of Islamic resistance.
Towards the beginning of the war of Ahmed Gragn, the
Argobbans joined armies with Afar and Somali against the
Christian Kingdom.
Due to its strategic location, Argobba became the center
of conflict between Muslims and Christians.
 Cont’d…
Argoba was a target of expanding Xn Kingdom
& center of conflict. B/c major caravan trade
routes passed through Argoba territory.
Hence, the Christian-Muslim rivalry & the
conflicts resulted in the destruction of the state
and the dispersion of the people.
So, the lasting effect of the conflict can be
observed from the fragmented settlement
patterns of the Argoba people.
 B. Afar
Before the 16th century, they had pushed as far as the
Middle Awash due to drought.

Trade route also passed through their territory

connecting the Horn.

Then it became the center of competition over trade

routes.
They were also actors in the conflict but they also
dispersed in a different directions due to the conflict.

Their pastoral economy helped them to survive the

 C. Somali
Located on the main trade route.

Before the Muslim-Christian wars of the 16th century,

they faced an environmental challenge in the area.

This contributed to the population movement that also

became a strong force behind the military strength of
Ahmed Gragn.

However, after 1543, with the defeat of Ahmed Gragn,

they returned back home and their influence did not
last long.
 5.3.2. Gadaa System and
Oromo Population Movement
(1522-1618)
 A. The Gadaa System
Gada System was an institution through w/c the people:-
 organize themselves,
 defend their territories,
 administer their affairs,
 maintain law and order, and
 manage their economies.
No Studies clearly indicated how & when it Gadaa emerged,
 But for long time, the society organized their politics, economy, social,
cultural & religious affairs through Gadaa institution.
Abba Bahrey also confirmed that Oromo had practiced Gadaa system long
before 16th c, movement.
Time computation & recording history was based on the eight-year
segment of time.
In the system, 8 years represented one Gadaa period, 5-gadaa periods or
40 years represented one generation & nine generations represented an
 Cont’d
Accordingly, earliest eras of Gadaa was Bidiri Dhoqqe
(obscure)
 Prior to beginning of Gadaa Borana-Barentu r. 1450 AD,
Oromo passed through known eras of Taya, Tasaa, Munyo,
Suftu, Maddile, Abroji, Dhittacha & Warra-Daye (warden),
each survived for an era.
Gadaa was interrupted & revitalized during various eras
b/c because of various internal & external factors.
 e.g, Borana-Barentu Gadaa instituted after 2 generations
interruption
It was revived in 1450 at Madda Walabu that became the
central Chaffe (assembly) & seat of the senior Qallu until
1900.
 Cont’d

Gada system constitutes elements of Democracy like:-

periodic election & power-sharing to prevent one-man rule.
Principle of representation of all lineages, clans &
confederacies.
 served as a mechanism of socialization, education,
maintenance of peace & order, and social cohesion.
In addition, Gadaa constituted rules of arara (conflict
resolution), guma (compensation), & rakoo (marriage).
It organizes the people into age grades & generation sets
defining members' social, political, and economic
responsibilities.
It provided socio-political framework that
institutionalized r/ship b/n seniors & juniors & egalitarian
relations among members of a grade.
 Cont’d…
In the system, 10 age grades and 5 classes operated in parallel.
 Cont’d

 gadaa/luba assumed power for eight years.

 The head of the gov.t was known as Abba-Gadaa
literally “father of the period” who assisted by
several elected representatives for 8 yrs such as:
Abba Bokku (father of scepter),
Abba Chaffe (head of the assembly),
Abba-Dula (war leader),
Abba Sera (father of law),
Abba Alanga (judge),
Abba Sa'a (father of treasury) and other councilors.
In Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda)
played great roles in power transfer &legitimizing
the ruling gadaa class.
 Cont…,
Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe institution, which
helped them to form sisterhood & solidarity.
Women from childhood to old age went through:-
 guduru (pre-pubescent),
 qarre (adolescent, ready for marriage),
 kalale (wives of Luba and Yuba) and
 cifire (wives of Gadamojji/above 80 years) believed to have sacred power.
They involved in occasions like power transfer, conflict resolution,
thanks-giving and others.
kalale were also privileged to support & advise the ruling class.
the Gadaa system functioned by cyclical power transfer from one
Gadaa class to the next every eight years.
With some minor d/ce in nomenclature in d/t parts of Oromo
territories, the five Gadaa classes (generation sets) are listed below:
Cont’d…
 B. The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
Resulted from natural & manmade factors.
Natural  demographic increase and the need for
land for human and livestock admin.
Manmade the influence of the Muslim-Christian
war to leave their homeland for other areas.
Before their expansion, the Oromo were organized into
the Borana and Barentu confederacies.
Oromo armies advanced to the north direction &passed
through corridor b/n Mount Walabu & Lake Abaya,
After they reach lake Abbaya & Hawassa,then they took
westward to Bilatte River, to the south, & then turned
north to the Lakes Region of the Rift Valley.
 Cont’d…
From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought 12 Butta wars.
 Melba (1522-30)  fought & defeated Christian regiment Batra Amora led by Fasil & occupied
Bali
 Mudena (1530-8)  reached the edge of the Awash River.
 Kilole (1538- 46)  controlled Dawaro after defeating Christian regiment Adal Mabraq while
Bifole (1546- 54) advanced to Waj and Erer.
 Michille (1554-62)  scored a victory over Hamalmal's force at Dago, & Jan Amora forces as
well as Adal led by Emir Nur Mujahidin at Mount Hazalo.
 Harmufa (1562-70)  fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina & Wayyata; occupied Angot, Ganzyi,
Sayint, etc.
 Robale (1570-78)  fought with army of Sartsa Dingil & first lost the battle at Wayna Dega in
1574 but later recovered & defeated the army of Zara’a Yohannis.
 Birmaji (1578-86) controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama to Wolaqa, and overwhelmed the
Daragoti regiment.
 Mul’ata (1586-94) seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat, Dambiya and Tigray.
 In the early 16thc, Dulo (1594-1602), Melba (1603-10), & Mudena (1610-18) expanded to West
& Northern parts of the Horn of Africa while others like the Warday moved to Kenya, Bur
 Cont’d…
Besides to Xn-Muslim conflicts, org’n of Oromo under Gadaa
system played crucial role for success of Oromo pop’n mov’t.
In the course of their mov’t into various regions, d/t Oromo
branches established Gadaa centers.
 Oda Nabee of Tulama,
 Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi),
 Oda Bultum of Itu-Humabenna,
 Oda Bisil of Mecha,
 Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha
 Oda Gayo of Sabbo-Gona,
 Oda Me'e Bokko of Guji,
 Oda Dogi of Ilu,
 Oda Hulle of Jimma,
 Oda Garado of Walloo, etc. became major Gadaa centers.

 Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna Sorra of Guji, Makko-
Bili of Mecha, Babbo Koyye of Jimma, & others established Gadaa centers
 Cont…,

However, various Oromo groups kept their relations through:-

 the office of Abba Muda (father of anointment) seated at Madda Walabu
and formed alliances during times of difficulty until 1900.
 Besides, they obeyed similar ada (culture) & sera (law) through sending
their delegates to Madda-Walabu, the central chaffe until the pan-Oromo
assembly forbidden in 1900 due to political influence of Ethiopian state.
In due course, Gadaa devised effective resource allocation formula
including land.
Eg. Land holding system to regulate resource & their interaction
among different clans is known as the Qabiyye system.
The system established rights of precedence(seniority) in possession
of land.
Accordingly, place names were given the names of pioneers as
markers of qabiyye rights.
5.4. Interaction & Integration across Ethnic & Religious
Diversities
Generally, the medieval period was a factor in people’s
interaction across the region that occurred during peace
and conflict periods.
Eg. trade contacts & conflicts to control trade routes, religious
expansion, & territorial expansion & pop’n mov’ts were happened.
One of the major consequences of interaction in
medieval period particularly, pop’n mov’t 0f 16thc was
people’s integration across religious & ethnic diversity in
Ethiopia & the horn.
It involved diverse ethnic groups, cultures, & religions
from south to north & from east to west.
 Cont…,

E.g. territorial & religious expansion of Christian kingdom

diffused Christian tradition from north to the south.

Similarly, wars of Imam Ahmed & pop’n mov’ts of the

Argoba, the Afar & the Somali caused the expansion of
Islam into the central parts of Ethiopia.

The Oromo pop’n mov’t & expansion brought an end

to Muslim-Christian War, & southward expansion of the
Xn kingdom was another consequence.
 Cont’d…
At larger scale, Oromo contact with diverse peoples in the
16thc brought far-reaching integrations among peoples
across ethnic & religious background.
The Oromo integrated non-Oromo through two adoption
mechanisms: Guddifacha and Moggasa.
Guddifacha adoption of a child by a foster-parent where
the child enjoys equal rights & privileges with a biological
child.
Moggasa/Oromsu was a system of adopting non-Oromo
individuals or groups to a clan through oath of allegiance
with all rights and obligations.
adopted groups gained both protection and material
benefits.
The process significantly contributed to social unities,
national integration, and the revival of long-distance trade.
 Cont…,

Interactions also resulted in an exchange of socio-cultural

values and institutions.
 A number of peoples in the neighborhood of the Oromo
adopted Gadaa system and Oromo language.
The Oromo also adopted and adapted cultures and
traditions of the people with whom they came into
contact. So, the adoption of monarchical systems and the
integration of the Oromo to the Xn and Muslim cultures.
 This means the rise of nobles in the northern Oromo in
Ethiopian politics particularly Gondarine period, Zemene-
Mesafint & making of modern Ethiopia.
 5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern &
Western Regions
5.5.1. Peoples and States in the East
SOMALI
 Inhabited vast territory of Horn & practiced pastoral economy.
Ibn Said (1214-86),noted,In13thc, Merca town inhabited by Somalis
Somali played key role in Adal victories against Xn kingdom.
 Historically, a council known as shir governed the society.
decision making process was highly democratic b/c all-adult male
were allowed equal access and participation.
These councils at sub-clan, clan & inter-clan level provided a
governing structure that acted as an enforcement of law & justice.
As a component of shir, the guurti (a council of elders) was the
highest political council mandated with resolving conflict and crisis.
 Cont…,

Afar:-
The Afar had an indigenous governance system known as
Makabanto, with some elements of democracy.
After the collapse of Sultanate of Adal in 16thc, Afar
established their sultanates like Awsa, Girrifo, Tadjourah,
Rahaito and Gobad.
Awsa Sultanate succeeded the earlier Imamate of Awsa in
the middle Awash.
The latter polity had come into existence in 1577, when
Mohammed Jasa moved his capital from Harar to Awsa.
According to Ibn Said, Afar people were occupied the
lowland territory near Bab el-Mandeb in 13th c
 Cont…,

Argoba
There are two versions on origin of this people
The first says; they descended from the
followers of the Prophet Mohammed who
came to the Horn of Africa and settled at Ifat.
 The second claims that the origin of the
Argoba is not related with Muslim Arab
immigrants.
More plausibly, Argoba are one of the ancient
peoples in the region that accepted Islam very
early from religious leaders who came from
Arabia.
 Cont…,

The Emirate of Harar

Harar is one of the earliest Muslim centers in Ethiopia & the Horn.
 In 16thc, Harar became the capital of Walasma of Adal replacing
Dakar until 1577 when it was shifted to Awsa due to the pressure
from the Oromo.
Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim used Harar as a center from where he
launched campaigns into Xn kingdom in 1527.
 Later during the reign of Emir Nur Mujahid, Harar became a walled
city where the sultanate of the Harari developed.
In mid 17thc, Emir Ali ibn Da’ud (1647-62) in cooperation with
Oromo, formed a dynasty w/c ruled for two centuries & a half.
It was strengthened by Amirs like Abdul Shakur (1783-94). The
Amir’s council, Majilis engaged in supervising Mosque land, Waqf
and offering other assistance to the Amir
 Cont…,

Its economic power grew as it controlled trade routes Zeila and

Berbera
Harars authority was established over the surrounding Oromo and
Somali through:-
 trade,
 inter-marriage, and
expansion of Islamic teachings.

Egyptians were attracted by such a prominence that they sent an

expeditionary force in 1875 & controlled emirate for nearly a
decade.

Although it was later restored & ruled by Amir Abdulahi; the last
emir of the Sultanate for two years, Emperor Menilek’s expansion to
the region shortly followed in 1887
 5.5.2. Peoples and States in Central and South Central Parts

The K/dom of Shewa

 formed by a Menz ruler Negasi Kristos (r.1696-1703) and
eventually controlled districts like Asandabo, Debdabo, Mafud and
Yifat.
The dynasty became very strong under Negus Sahle-Sellasie
(r.1813-47), the grandfather of Emperor Menilek II.
During his reign, many travelers visited Shewa & he signed “treaty
of friendship & commerce” with British in 1841.

Gurage
 There are W/n (Sebat Bet Gurage) & N/n (Kistane) Gurage.
Sebat Bet Gurage include: Chaha, Muher, Ezha, Gumer (Inamor,
Enner, Endegegna and Gyeto).
Kistane Gurage are Aymallalor Soddo Gurage.
The Gurage had traditional system of governance. It is known as
the Yajoka Qicha among the Sebat Bet & Gordanna Sera among
 Cont…,
Kambata
Their origin was around Mount Hambericho in
the heartland of Kambata.
The people are ensete farmers and speaking the
language called Kambatissa, which belongs to the
Highland East Cushitic family together with
Qabena, Halaba, Hadiya, Sidama, Gedeo and Burji
groups.
Their traditional administration is called
Hambericho Council.
The council had seven members each
representing the seven clans in the region.
 Cont…,

Hadiya
• The origin of the state of Hadiya goesback to the 13 th C.
• As mentioned in the Kebre-Negest, they exist west of
the Islamic states in the federation of Zeila.
• The people were heterogeneous in language & culture.
• From the 13th to the 16thC, Hadiya’s political importance
was great with huge pop/n and vast territory.
• Zara-Yaqob made a political marriage with Princess
Elleni, from Hadiya, who became an important
historical figure in the empire.
 5.5.3. Peoples and States in the South
Sidama
had an indigenous system of governance led by the Mote (king).
The Mote exercised political & administrative authority with the
council of elders called Songo.
The cultural and ritual leader in Sidama was the Woma.
He was selected for his ability as a peacemaker, bodily
perfection, oratorical ability, wisdom and caution.
Sidama society was divided into generation-sets called Luwa
w/c had five grades each lasting for eight years.
Another important institution of Sidama society is Seera.
Seera was the social constitution of the Sidama people
governing social life based on the Sidama moral code, halale
(the ultimate truth) to judge over the right and wrong.
 Cont…,

The Southerners Sidama, Gedeo, and Konso

The Southwesterners Wolayta, Kafa, Yem,

Gamo, Dawuro, and Ari

The Westerners Berta and Gumuz, Anywa,

Nuer, Majang, and the Kunama
5.6. The Gondarine Period
and Zemene-Mesafint
 5.6.1. The Gondarine Period 1636-1769

A. Political Developments
This began during Sartsa-Dengel when the political
center moved to the Gondar area and established Royal
Camp at Enfranz in 1571.

Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near

Gondar in such places as Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz, and
Azazo.

But Fasiledas founded & established Gondar as political

seat in 1636.

Then, Gondar became glorious during the first 3

rulers Fasiledas (r.1632–67), Yohannes I (r.1667-82),
 Major Developments of these periods:
The restoration of the EOC as the state religion,

The establishment of a royal prison at Amba Wahni, to

solve succession problems

The establishment of a separate quarter for Muslims at Addis

Alem by Yohannes I and his councils, and

Land reform the introduction of land measurement, taxes,

customs, and revision of the Fetha Negest by Iyasu I.

Iyasu the Great was assassinated and this led to political

 Cont’d…
Tekle-Haymanot, the son of Iyasu the Great, was
enthroned in 1706 but was also assassinated by
Tewoflos in 1708.
Tewoflos was again killed by Yostos in 1711, who
was also poisoned and replaced by Dawit III,
again poisoned and replaced by Bakafa in 1721.
Bakafa, with the support of his wife- Etege
Mentewab, tried to restore stability but was
unsuccessful since he was incapacitated in 1728.
The Gondarine Period also witnessed increased
involvement of the Oromo in Imperial politics and
the army.
 Cont’d…
From 1728 to 1768, Mentewab and her brother, Ras-Bitwaded Walda Le’ul
(1732-1767), dominated the Gondarine court politics.
Walda Le’ul was influential during the reigns of Iyasu II (1730-55) and Iyoas
(1755-69).
After his death in 1767, Mentewab was challenged by Wubit Amito of Wollo,
and invited Mikael Sehul of Tigray who was politically shrewd and militarily
powerful.
Mika'el Sehul succeeded in stabilizing the situation but refused to return to
Tigray although demanded by Iyoas.
This was followed by the killing of Iyoas and his replacement by an old man
Yohannes II by Ras Mika'el.
Soon Ras Mika'el killed Yohannes II and put his son Takla-Haymanot II (1769-77)
in power.

This marked the onset of the pd of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855).

 B. Achievements of the Gondarine Period

Gondar became the center of state

administration, learning, commerce,
education, art, and crafts for more than
two centuries.
In many instances, it repeated the
Aksumite and the Lalibella achievements
in the areas of architecture, painting,
literature, trade, and urbanization.
5.6.2. The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)
In this pd actual political power was in the hands
of different regional lords.
It Covers the pd from the assassination of Iyoas in
1769 to the coming of Tewodros II in 1855.
Ras Michael Sehul became a kingmaker, however,
failed short of popularity among the mass due to
his evility.
Then coalition of armed forces from Gojjam,
Amhara, Lasta and Wollo fought and defeated him
at the battle of Sarba-Kussa in 1771.
After his defeat, there was relative stability but
several regional lords emerged where the main
centers were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya, Begemedir,
Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam, and Shewa.
 Cont’d…
This time, the “Yejju dynasty”, which was founded by Ali
Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) in 1786, was the leading
power with the center at Debre-tabor.
The Yejju Dynasty reached its zenith under Gugsa
Marso (r.1803-1825) who fought with Ras Walde-Silassie
of Enderta and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of Agame.
In 1826, Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825-8), defeated
Hayle-Mariam Gebre of Simen.
And Yimam also killed Dejach Maru of Dambiya at the
battle of Koso-Ber in 1827.
Zemene Mesafint was ended by Kasa Hailu of Qwara
through a series of battles that lasted from the 1840s to
1855.
 Major features of Zemene-Mesafint
Absence of effective central government;
The growing power/influence of the regional warlords
The domination of Yejju lords over other lords in
northern Ethiopia;
Rivalry among regional lords to become king-maker;
Establishment of fragile coalitions to advance political
interests;
EOC was unable to play its traditional role of unifying
the state due to doctrinal disputes;
Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “closed-
door” policy.
Developments in terms of literature, arts, architecture
 UNIT SIX
INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND
EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF
ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN,
1800-1941
 Introduction
It surveys the history of the region from the early
19th century to 1941.

It begins in 1800 as many of states in the southern

half of the country emerged.

The continuous and complex interactions and

external relations that shaped the region’s modern
history are also covered in this unit.
6.1. The Nature of Interactions
among Peoples and States of
Ethiopia and the Horn

6.1.1. Peoples and States in South-Central,

Southwestern, and Western Ethiopia
A. South-Central Peoples and States
Politically autonomous and semi-autonomous states existed eg.
Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, and Gurage

Largely they practices  agrarian economy

Local merchants participate in local trade and sometimes the

long-distance trade which passes through this territory

Among these, the Gurage land was an important market center and
political entity where important trade centers such as Soddo and
Aymallel were located.

Gurage had its own political organization led by Abegaz or

 Cont’d…
Qebena emerged as an important political center
in the 2nd half of 19th century.

It became the center of Muslim revivalism that

swept across a large part of the region and was
attended by a fast spread of Islam.
 B. The Gibe States
These were monarchical states that emerged at the expense
of the Gadaa System

Following the wars of expansion, many leaders and powerful

individuals usurped the power of the Gadaa government.

The Abba-Dulas accumulated wealth from taxation of LDT and

utilized the opportunity to establish hereditary leadership.

These developments took place among the Gibe Oromos

where 5 monarchical states emerged.
 i. Limmu-Enarya
The earliest of the Gibe states.

Founded on the medieval state of Enarya after Tesso

(Abba Dula of Limmu) defeated the successive Enaryan
rulers of Badancho, Gu’amcho, and Banaro at different
times

Then, Bofoo/Abba Gomol (1800-1825) established

Limmu-Enarya

He was abdicated by Ibsa his son, who brought the state
to the highest by incorporating Hagalo, Badi-Folla, etc.

Finally he was succeeded by Abba Bulgu (1861-1883).

 ii. Gumma
Established by Jilcha after killing Sarbaroda of the
Dogaye clan
Later succeeded by his son, Oncho (1810-1830)
He was again succeeded by Jawwe (1840-1854).

iii. Gomma
Formed by Abba Bokee (1800-1829) who was
succeeded by his son Abba Manoo (1829-1840)
who occupied Qattuu and converted to Islam by
Muslim Ulama/scholars.
 iv. Jimma
Initially, Makahore emerged as an influential female figure among the
Oromo of Jimma.

Then, later Abba Dula took political power from her, and Ose Kobi
(Abba Faro) was elected as a hereditary ruler.

After him, Dangila (Abba Magal) enlarged the domain but the process
of state formation ended with Sanna/Abba Jifar I (r.1830-55) who
formed the Jimma Kingdom.

Abbaa Jifar II (r.1875-1934) was the most famous of all the Jimma
rulers.

Agriculture, trade, iron mining, and smelting were the base of their
 v. Gera
The last to be formed in the Gibe region

State formation was completed during Tulluu Gunji

(r.1835-38) who self-appointed as a king.

Succeeded by Abba Raagoo I (1834-1848) but there was a

brief period of rule by Abba Basso.

It became prosperous under Abbaa Magaal who was

converted to Islam.

Gera also attracted Muslim missionaries to preach Islam in

 C. The Leqa States
Here also several monarchical states emerged in
Wallagga among the Maccaa Oromoo.

Among these were the Leqa states, the Sibu,

and the Jawwii south of the Abbay River.

In the Horro area, Moti/king Abishe Gerba

established a strong monarchical state of Horro.

Others also declared themselves Moti (king) by

controlling trade routes and territories where the
Leqa states were prominent.
 I. Leqa-Naqamte
Founded by Bakare Godana in 1840 and reached the highest under
Moroda and Kumsa.

The latter established a strong monarchy rich in trade and agriculture.

Kumsa (dejach Gebre Egziabher) promoted handcraft work, gold

washing, coffee planting, and game reserves/hunting.

Rulers established a new administrative structure and judicial

hierarchy that replaced the Gadaa system known as sirna abba-qoroo
(qoro system).

The administration was a kingship and had similarity to feudal

administration in its reliance on the land.
 II. Leqa-Qellam
Located in south-western Wallagga

Founded by Tullu, and became prominent under

Jote at its center in Gidami, who controlled the areas
around Sayyo-Dambi Dollo.

D. Ilu
Founded by Chali Shano of the Tume clan leader in
the early 19th century.

This was one of the most prosperous states in the

region.
 Cont’d…
The monarchical states own unique local titles
Abba Gurmu (next person to the king),
Abba Mizan (treasurer and foreign affair minister),
Abba Dango (immigration chief),
Lammi (ambassador/royal messenger),
Abba Qoro (district governor),
Abba Ganda (village chief),
Abba Busi (tax head),
Abba Jiga (murder judge), and
Abba-Qawe (bodyguard).

 Different from practices under the Gadaa system, farmers

were forced to pay crop tax measured by traditional
instruments called buchano (about 15 kilograms) and later
guboo (25 kilograms) on each crop.
 E. Nilotic Sheikdoms
Important Islamic centers and states were established in this
area by the Sudanese traders over Berta and Gumuz people.

 the Sheikhdoms of Assosa or Aqoldi, Bela Shangul, and Khomosha

were established to the south of the Abbay River
 the Sheikhdom of Guba emerged to the north of the same river on
the western edge of Gojjam

These states were established by the “Watawits”- the

Arabized Berta people who entered and settled in the area
as traders and Islamic teachers.

Economically agriculture, gold-mining, and frontier trade

comes first.

 Asosa got preeminence under Sheikh Khojale al Hasan,

Benishangul under Abd al Rahman Khojale, and Khomosha during
 6.1.2. Trade and Trade Routes
The trade route in the region become particularly prominent in the
19th century with the revival of external trade through the Red Sea.
Then, it became a means of maintaining strong relations among the
people in the region.

We have two main trade routes that linked the people in the region.

The first started from Bonga and linked the southwestern with the
northern Ethiopian regions.
 The main market centers were BongaHirmata (in Jimma) 
Saqa (in Limmu)  Billo (in Leqa-Naqamte)  Asandabo (in
Guduru) Basso-Yajube (in Gojjam) Yifag and Darita (in
Begemider)  then to Gondar & divided in to two branches.
 GondarChilgaMatamma-Qallabat (Gallabat) to Sudan-jallabat
 GondarAdwaAsmaraMassawa.
Before Gondare; Basso Ancharro & Dawwe in Wollo Awsa
TajuraObbok & Rahe’ita in Djibouti.
Trade Routes of Ethiopia and the Horn in the 19th
Century
 Cont’d…
The 2nd group began from Bonga Hirmata Agabja
Andode-Toli Soddo Rogge Aliyu Amba/Abdul
Rasul Harar. Then to Zeila and to Berbera (Somalia)
Middle East

 In these trade interactions, trade items collected from the

southwest MKT were;
 gold, ivory, rhinoceros horn, skins, civet, musk, honey, wax,
coffee, various spices, and slaves
 Slaves were exported to Arabia, Persia, and India

 Import items ironware and the medium of exchange

were salt bars (amole), iron bars, wines, cowries’ shells,
beads, pieces of cotton cloth (abujadi), Maria Theresa
Thalers (MTT), etc.
 6.2. The Making of the Modern Ethiopian
State
Trade, population movements, evangelization, and wars
played important roles the making of the modern
Ethiopian state.

Many autonomous and semi-autonomous states also

existed.

The different states of the 19th century were involved in

territorial expansion for territorial acquisition and state-
building.

The making of the modern Ethiopian state passed through

two phases unification of the northern and the central
 A. The Process of Territorial Unification

Kassa Hailu ended the pd of Zemene Mesafint and assumed

power by the name Tewodros II (1855-68).

Kassa, with his brother, defeated the Egyptians at Wad

Kaltabu (in Eastern Sudan) in 1837.

Later, he fought the Egyptians at Debark in 1848 but was

defeated.

His war with the Egyptians made him famous in the area
which became a concern to the Yejju Family.

Then a political arrangement was made to pacify him and he

married the daughter of Ras Ali, Mentwab, and was
appointed the governor of Quara.
 Cont’d…
To end the Zemene Mesafint, Kassa fought 4 major battles.
 At Gur Amba on November 27, 1852 with Dejjach Goshu Zewde
of Gojjam
 At Taqusa (Gorgora Bichign) on April 12, 1853 with Birru Aligaz,
Aben, Yazew and Belew sent by Ras Ali.
 At Ayshal on 29 June 1853 with Ras Ali himself.
 At Deresge on 8 February 1855 with Dejjazmach Wube of Semen
and Tigray.

Finally, he was anointed by Abune Salama, the Coptic bishop

at Deresge Mariam on 9 Feb. 1855, as Tewodros II (1855-
1868), King of Kings of Ethiopia.

Then, he marched south to Wallo and Shawa to create a

strong and centralized state but soon faced strong opposition
from Gojjam, Simen, Wag and Lasta, Shewa, Wollo, and
Tigray. Why?
 Cont’d…
Due to both internal and external factors, he did not realize his
dream and finally died in 1868 at Makdalla in Wallo while
fighting with the British armies.

After his death, three power contenders came but Wakshum

Gobeze of Lasta rose to power as Tekle-Giorgis II (1868-71).

He was also defeated by Kassa Mircha of Tigray at Assam (near

Adwa) in 1871 and Kassa became the King (1872-1889).

He followed a decentralized approach to state-building and

recognized Menelik as the King of Shawa at the Liche
Agreement (1878).

Ras Tesema of Gojjam was also appointed to Gojjam and Kafa

 Cont’d…
Emperor Yohannes IV united the predominantly-Christian
provinces Wag and Lasta, Simen, Begemidr, Amhara Saynt,
Gojjam, Wollo, Shewa, and the Mereb Milash for quite some
time.

Also sought to end religious controversies in the EOC for

religious unity, …

He declared Tewahdo as the only Christian doctrine at Boru

Meda Council (1878).

Also he declared a campaign to convert Muslims to

Christianity.

There were external challenges from the Italians and

Egyptians and also internally from the regional governors to