Motivation
Motivation And Individual Needs
• Motivation
The willingness to exert high levels of effort to reach
organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability
to satisfy some individual need
• Need
An internal state that makes certain outcomes appear
attractive
The Motivation Process
3 Groups of
Motivational Theories
• Internal
Suggest that variables within the individual give rise
to motivation and behavior
Example: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
• Process
Emphasize the nature of the interaction between the
individual and the environment
Example: Expectancy theory
• External
Focus on environmental elements to explain behavior
Example: Two-factor theory
Early Theories Of Motivation
• Hierarchy of needs theory (Maslow)
There is a hierarchy of five human needs; as each
need becomes satisfied, the next need becomes
dominant.
Physiological: food, drink, shelter, sex
Safety: physical safety
Social: affiliation with others, affection, friendship
Esteem: Internal (self-respect, autonomy, and
achievement); external (status, recognition, and
attention)
Self-actualization: personal growth and fulfillment
Early Theories Of Motivation (cont’d)
• Theory X (McGregor)
The assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy,
seek to avoid responsibility, and must be coerced to
perform
• Theory Y
The assumption that employees are creative, seek
responsibility, and can exercise self-direction
Theory X Premises
• A manager who views employees from a Theory X
(negative) perspective believes:
Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever possible, will
attempt to avoid it.
Because employees dislike work, they must be coerced,
controlled, or threatened with punishment to achieve desired
goals.
Employees will shirk responsibilities and seek formal direction
whenever possible.
Most workers place security above all other factors associated
with work and will display little ambition.
Theory Y Premises
• A manager who views employees from a Theory Y
(positive) perspective believes:
Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play.
Men and women will exercise self-direction and self-control if
they are committed to the objectives.
The average person can learn to accept, even seek,
responsibility.
The ability to make good decisions is widely dispersed
throughout the population and is not necessarily the sole
province of managers.
McGregor’s Assumptions
About People Based on Theory X
• Naturally lethargic
• Lack ambition, dislike responsibility,
and prefer to be led
• Inherently self-centered and
indifferent to organizational needs
• Naturally resistant to change
• Gullible, not bright, ready dupes
Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957. Copyright 1957
American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved.
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McGregor’s Assumptions
About People Based on Theory Y
• Experiences in organizations result in passive
and resistant behaviors; they are not inherent
• Motivation, development potential, capacity for
assuming responsibility, readiness to direct
behavior toward organizational goals are
present in people
• Management’s task—arrange conditions and
operational methods so people can achieve
their own goals by directing efforts to
organizational goals
Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957.
Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York,
NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org.
Early Theories Of Motivation (cont’d)
• Motivation-Hygiene theory (Herzberg)
Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction and
extrinsic factors are related to job dissatisfaction
Hygiene factors
– Factors, such as working conditions and salary, that, when
adequate, may eliminate job dissatisfaction but do not
necessarily increase job satisfaction.
Motivators
– Factors, such as recognition and growth, that can increase
job satisfaction.
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Contrasting Views of
Satisfaction-Dissatisfaction
Contemporary Theories Of Motivation
• Three-needs theory (McClelland)
The needs for achievement, power, and affiliation are
major motives in work
Need for achievement (nAch): the drive to excel, to
achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to
succeed.
Need for power (nPow): The need to make others
behave in a way that they would not have behaved
otherwise.
Need for affiliation (nAff): The desire for friendly and
close interpersonal relationships.
Contemporary Theories Of Motivation
(cont’d)
• Equity theory (Adams)
Employees perceive what they get from a job
situation (outcomes) in relation to what they put into
it (inputs) and then compare their input-outcome
ratio with the input-outcome ratios of relevant others.
Contemporary Theories Of Motivation:
Equity Theory (cont’d)
• Referent
In equity theory, the other persons, the systems, or
the personal experiences against which individuals
compare themselves to assess equity.
The choice of a particular set of referents is related to
the information available about referents as well as to
the perceived relevance.
Equity Theory Relationships
Perceived Employee’s
Ratio Comparison Assessment
*Person A is the employee, and Person B is a relevant other or referent.
Equity Theory
• When employees perceive an inequity they may:
Distort either their own or others’ inputs or outcomes.
Behave so as to induce others to change their inputs
or outcomes.
Behave so as to change their own inputs or
outcomes.
Choose a different comparison referent.
Quit their job.
Equity Theory Prepositions
• If paid according to time, overrewarded employees will
produce more than equitably paid employees.
• If paid according to quantity of production,
overrewarded employees will produce fewer but higher-
quality units than equitably paid employees.
• If paid according to time, underrewarded employees
will produce less or poorer-quality output.
• If paid according to quantity of production, under-
rewarded employees will produce a large number of low-
quality units in comparison with equitably paid
employees.
Job Design And Motivation
• Job characteristics model (JCM)
Hackman and Oldham’s job description model:
The five core job dimensions are skill variety, task
identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback.
Internal rewards are obtained when:
An employee learns (knowledge of results) through
(feedback) that he or she personally (experienced
responsibility through autonomy of work) has performed
well on a task that he or she cares about (experienced
meaningfulness through skill variety, task identity,
and/or task significance).
Core Job Dimensions
• Skill variety
The degree to which the job requires a variety of
activities so the worker can use a number of different
skills and talents
• Task identity
The degree to which the job requires completion of a
whole and identifiable piece of work
• Task significance
The degree to which the job affects the lives or work
of other people
Core Job Dimensions (cont’d)
• Autonomy
The degree to which the job provides freedom,
independence, and discretion to the individual in
scheduling the work and in determining the
procedures to be used in carrying it out
• Feedback
The degree to which carrying out the work activities
required by the job results in the individual’s
obtaining direct and clear information about the
effectiveness of his or her performance
The Job Characteristics Model
Source: J. R. Hackman, “Work Design,” in J. R. Hackman and J. L. Suttle, eds.,
Improving Life at Work (Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1977), p. 129.
Guidelines for Job Redesign
Source: J. R. Hackman and J. L. Suttle eds., Improving Life at Work
(Glenview. IL: Scott, Foresman, 1977). With permission of the
authors.
Expectancy Theory (Vroom)
• A comprehensive theory of motivation that an
individual tends to act in a certain way, in the
expectation that the act will be followed by given
outcome, and according to the attractiveness of
that outcome to the individual.
The extent to which individuals are motivated to
perform to get a reward of value to them is based on
their belief that their performance will result in the
reward they want.
Expectancy Theory (cont’d)
• Emphasizes self interest in the alignment of
rewards with employee wants.
• Addresses why employees view certain
outcomes (rewards) as attractive or unattractive.
• Emphasizes the connections among expected
behaviors, rewards, and organizational goals.
• Is concerned with individual perceptions and the
provision of feedback.
Expectancy Relationships (Linkages)
• Effort–performance
The perceived probability that exerting a given
amount of effort will lead to performance
• Performance–reward
The belief that performing at a particular level will
lead to the attainment of a desired outcome
• Attractiveness
The importance placed on the potential outcome or
reward that can be achieved on the job.
Simplified Expectancy Theory
Performance
appraisal system
Training and Human resources
development management
