HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA AND

THE HORN (Hist. 1012)

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 UNIT ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1. THE NATURE AND USES OF HISTORY
1.2. SOURCES AND METHODS OF HISTORICAL STUDY
1.3. HISTORIOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
1.4. THE GEOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT

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 1.1. The Nature and Uses of History
Objectives:
 This unit deals with the nature of history and historiography, the mulitlayered histories of Ethiopia
and the Horn and the extent to which interactions between societies that have shaped the present.

Meaning of Hist.= History is a systematic and organized knowledge of events of the past.
 Not all what had happened but what has been written / documented about the past / accounts of
the past/
 derived from the Greek word Istoria, meaning "inquiry" or "an account of one's inquiries."
 The first use of the term is attributed to one of the ancient Greek historians, Herodotus (c.
484--425 B.C.E.), who is often held to be the "father of history."
 Academic or profession history – is systematic and methodological, that involves the
discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of your findings about the past.
Studies interaction between humans and their environment the past within the framework
of continuity and change acorss time (Time is important in history)- hence Periodization
 We select B/S past events are infinitely broad
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 Uses of History
 historical background is essential for a balanced and in-depth under standing of
current world situations.
 For identity construction - “As memory is to the individual, history is to the society.
An individual without memory finds great difficulty in relating to others and making
decisions. A society without history would be in similar condition.
 History Provides the Basic Background for Other Disciplines (literature, art,
philosophy, religion, sociology, political science, anthropology, economics)

 Studying history helps students to develop critical skills. (how to find and evaluate
sources
- evaluate interpretations
- how to make coherent arguments based on various kinds of evidence
- present clearly in writing.
- Develop communication skills
- How to make informed decisions( see with your own eyes) in our day-to-day life.

 Develop Tolerance and Open-Mindedness Most of us have a tendency to regard our

own cultural practices, styles, and values as right and proper
- studying different societies ; Listen; try to understand; acquire broad perspectives with
all flexibility.
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 1.2. Sources and Methods of Historical Study

 Historians are not creative writers like novelists and writers of

fiction
 the work of historians must be supported by evidence arising
from sources.
 Evidence is found in sources
 where there are no sources, there is no evidence- where there is no
evidence there is no history.
 Historical sources are classified into two types: Primary and
Secondary.
 Primary sources are surviving traces of the past available to us in
the present.
 They are original or first hand
 Eg. manuscripts (handwritten materials), diaries, letters, minutes,
court records and administrative files, travel documents,
photographs, maps, video and audiovisual materials, 5
 artifacts such as coins, fossils, weapons, utensils, and buildings.
 Secondary sources
 S/S are second-hand published accounts about past events.
-They are written long after the event has occurred,
-Interpretations of what happened , why it happened, and how it
happened, are involved
-In fact based on primary sources.
Examples are articles, books, textbooks, biographies, and
published stories or movies about historical events.
 Yet, no work of history can be taken as final and absolute truth,
as new sources keep coming to light.
 Oral data valuable to study and document the history of non-
literate societies.
- In many societies, people transmit information from one
generation to another, for example, through folk songs and folk
sayings. This is called oral tradition.
 They can also be used to fill missing gaps and corroborate
written words. 6
 Contd.
Oral history= People can also provide oral testimonies or personal
recollections of lived experience. Such source material is known as
oral history.
 Critical evaluation of sources / Source critisim= information-
primary or secondary, written or oral- the data should be
subjected to critical evaluation before it is used as evidence.
 Primary sources have to be verified for their originality and
authenticity b/s sometimes primary sources like letters may be
forged.
 Secondary sources have to be examined for the reliability of their
reconstructions.
 Oral data may lose its originality and authenticity due to
distortion through time.
 Therefore, it should be crosschecked with other sources such as
written documents to determine its veracity or authenticity. 7
-Historiography 1.3. HISTORIOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
can be defined as the history of historical writing, studying how
knowledge of the past, either recent or distant, is obtained and transmitted.
- historiography as an intentional attempt to understand and represent
descriptions of past events in writing
- Organized study and narration of the past was introduced by ancient Greek
historians notably Herodotus (c. 484-425 B.C.E.) and Thucydides (c.455-400
B.C.E.)
- The other major tradition of thinking and writing about the past is the Chinese.
 Chinese historical thought and writing was from the Han dynasty figure Sima
Qian (145-86 B.C.E.).

 - History emerged as an academic discipline / Professionalized/ in the second

half of the nineteenth tin in Europe

 Leopold Von Ranke (1795-1886), and his colleagues established history as an

Academic discipline in Berlin with its own set of methods and concepts
 Ranke's greatest contribution to the scientific study of the past is such that
he is considered as the "father of modern historiography."

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 Historiography of Ethiopia
 This section is devoted to exploring significant transformations in
historical writing in the Ethiopian Region
 ln order to appreciate twentieth­ century historiography of the
region, it is first necessary to examine earlier fonns of
historiography (historical writing).

 The earliest known reference that we have on history of Ethiopia

and the Horn is the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea,
-written in the first century A.D by an anonymous author.
-Another document describing Aksum's trade and the then
Aksumite king's campaigns on both sides of the sea is the
Christian Topography composed by Cosmas Indicopleustes, a
Greek sailor, in the sixth century A.D.

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 1.3. HISTORIOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

Chronicles
- indigenous tradition of history writing
- Chronicles first appeared in the 14th c.
- The earliest and the last of such surviving documents are the
Glorious Victories of Amde-Tsion and the Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu
and Empress Zewditu respectively
- They focus on monarch's genealogy, upbringing, military exploits,
piety and statesmanship,
- their preoccupations and relations with subordinate officials
- though inadequately, help to understand the evolution of the
Ethiopian statem and society.
- Chronicles are known for their factual detail and strong
chronological framework,
- Their demerit:- chronicles explain historical events mainly in
religious terms
- for adulation of monarchs 10
 Contd.
- Arabic written sources ; - by Arabic-speaking visitors
such as al-Masudi , lbn Battuta and al Umari etc of
the 10th -14th c
- For the 16th &17th centuries we have two documents
composed by Yemeni writers
1) Shihab ad-Din composed Futuh al Habesha -
recorded the conflict between the Christian kingdom
and the Muslim principalities ( the wars of Imam
Ahmed) in the sixteenth century.
2) The other first-hand account was left to us by Al-
Haymi, who led a Yemeni delegation in 1647 to the
court of Fasiledes (r. 1632-67).
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 Contd.
√ Abba Bahrey's Geez script on the Oromo written in 1593 aliebet
its limitations, provides us with first-hand information about the
Oromo population movt. & the Gadaa System.
√ Missionary sources:- Ethiopian historiography significantly
benefited from these source from 16th -19th centuries
√ Eg. A Portuguese priest, Francisco Alvarez (who accompanied the
Portuguese mission to the court of Lebne-Dengel in 1520. ) wrote
The Prester John of the Indies

√ In addition to the missionary sources, travel documents also

contributed to Ethiopian Historiography
√ James Bruce's Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile.
√ Like other sources, however, both the missionaries and travelers'
materials can only be used with considerable reservations and
with care for they are socially and politically biased.
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 Foreign Writers
-Foreign writers also developed interest in Ethiopian studies.
- One of these was a German, Hiob LudoIf (1624-1704).
- LudoIf was the founder of Ethiopian studies in Europe in the 17th
century.
- He wrote Historia Aethiopica (A New History of Ethiopia).
- Ludolf never visited Ethiopia; he wrote largely based on
information he collected from an Ethiopian priest named Abba
Gorgorios (Abba Gregory) who was in Europe at that time.

- In the 19th C. August Dillman published two studies on ancient

Ethiopian history.
- Compared to Ludolf, Dillman demonstrated all markers of
objectivity in his historical research endeavors.

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 Local writings
§ In the early 20th century some departures from the chronicle
had been made.
§ This period saw the emergence of traditional Ethiopian writers
The earliest of this group were Aleqa Taye G./Mariam, Aleqa
Asme Giorgis and Debtera Fisseha-Giorgis Abyezgi.
§ Later, Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus and Gebre-Hiwot
Baykedagn joined them.
§ Unlike chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of topics from
social justice, administrative reform and economic analysis to
history.
§ Asme produced a work on the Oromo people,
§ Afework wrote the first Amharic novel, Tobiya,
§ while Gebre-Hiwot produced Atse Menilekna Etyopia (Emperor
Menilek and Ethiopia) and Mengistna Yehizb Astedader
(Government and Public Administration)
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 Contd.

§The most prolific writer of the early twentieth century

Ethiopia was, Blatten Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie.
§published four major works namely Ethiopiana
Metema , Wazema (Eve), Yehiwot Tarik and Yeityopia
Tarik .
§Gebre-Hiwot and Hiruy exhibited relative objectivity
and methodological sophistication in their works.
§Italian occupation of Ethiopia interrupted the early
experiment in modem history writing and publications.

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√ Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria formed a bridge between writers in pre-1935 and
Ethiopia professional historians who came after him.
√ published about eight historical works.
√ better evaluation of his sources than his predecessors.
√ Another work of importance is Yilma Deressa's Ye Ityopiya Tarik Be'asra
Sidistegnaw Kifle Zemen(A History of Ethiopia in the Sixteenth Century). The
book addresses the Oromo population movement and the wars between the
Christian kingdom and the Muslim sultanates as its main subjects.
√ Blatten Geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel also contributed his share.
Among others, he wrote Zikre Neger. - account of Ethiopia's prewar land
tenure systems and taxation.
√ Another work dealing specifically with aspects of land tenure is left to us by
Gebre-Wold Engidawork. Another writer of the same category was
Dejazmach Kebede Tesema. Kebede wrote his memoir of the imperial period,
published as Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962 E.C.

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 The professionalization of history in the 1960s
§ The professionalization of history and the pursuit of history as a full
time profession and academic discipline
§ Landmark is the opening of the Department of History in 1963 in the
Then HSIU.
§ The Department launched its MA and PhD programs in 1979 and
1990
§ The Institute of Ethiopian Studies (JES) is the other institutional
home of professional historiography of Ethiopia, founded in 1963.
§ Since then the Institute housed a number of historians of whom the
late Richard Pankhurst, the first Director and founding member of
the Institute
§ Pankhurst's prolific publication record
- authored or co-authored 22 books and produced articles

§ IES has been publishing the Journal of Ethiopian Studies for the
dissemination of historical research. 17
 Contd.

§The professionalization of history in other parts of the

Horn is a post-colonial phenomenon.
§The decolonization of African historiography from its
Euro –centric biases required new methodological
approach (tools of investigation) to the study of the
past that involved a critical use of oral data
§Foundational research was done at the School of
Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) in London and
the Department of History at the University of
Wisconsin-Madison in the 1960s

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 UNIT TWO: PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

2.1. HUMAN EVOLUTION

2.2. NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION
2.3. THE PEOPLING OF THE REGION
2.4. RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS PROCESSES

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 2.1. HUMAN EVOLUTION
Introduction
Ethiopia and the Horn-
 the cradle of humankind
 the origin of early civilizations ( such as food
production, making tools and religious
practices were initiated.
 is home to diverse peoples, cultures
(languages, religion, customs... ) and economic
activities.

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 Human Evolution
 How do you think human beings came into
existence?
 Evolution = a gradual natural process
 The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1
billion years B. P.
 Evidence suggest that East African Rift Valley is the
cradle of humanity.
 both biological and cultural evolution have been
discovered in the Lower Omo and Middle Awash River
valleys; the Afar Plain; The Olduvai George , Tanzania
and Kenya
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 Contd.
Among others; ( Regarding Biological Evolution)
 fossil named Chororapithecus dated 10 million B. P. was unearthed in Anchar (in
West Hararghe) in 2007.
 Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2 million years BP) was discovered in
Middle Awash. YHS
 Ardipithicus ramidus (dated 4. 2 million B.P.) was discovered at Aramis in Afar in
1994. Tim White
 Other Australopithecines were uncovered at Belohdelie (dated back 3.6 million
years B. P.) in Middle Awash.
 A three years old child's fossil named as Australopithecus afarensis, Selam, dated
to 3.3 million years B.P was also discovered at Dikika, Mille, Afar in 2000.
 Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh) -was discovered at Hadar in Afar in
1974 A. D.
 - dated c. 3.18 million years B. P.)
 - with 40% complete body parts,
 - weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters
 - with a pelvis looks like bipedal female

 It is therefore with reason that we say the Horn is the Cradle of

Humanity. 22
 The Genus Homo
 The development of the human brain was a
major evolutionary transformation
 the genus Homo, believed to have emerged 2-
2.5 million years B.P.
 Evidences of the genus homo from different
parts of Ethiopia and the Horn include;
- Homo habilis- A partial skull named) - derived from Latin terms "Homo" (human
being) and "Habilis" (skillful use of hands), dated 1.9 million years B. P. from the
Lower Omo.
- Homo erectus (walking upright, dated I. 6 million years B. P.) - discovered at Melka
Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb with 900-1100 cc brain size.
- Homo erectus seems to have originated in Africa and then spread out to the rest of the
world.

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Homo sapiens ='wise human‘ or, the ‘Thinking Man’, ‘knowledgeable human
being’

 the closest ancestor to modern man

 with a larger Brain size of 1300-1400 cc
 Skeleton of Archaic Homosapien dated 400, 000 years B.P.)
named Bodo with brain size of 1300-1400cc was
discovered in Middle Awash.
 Fossils of Homo sapiens (100,000 years B.P.) were
discovered at Pore Epic near Dire Dawa, and Kibish
around Lower Omo (in 1967).
 the oldest date in the world for modem Homo sapiens.
Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash in 1997.
 lived about 160,000 years B.P.
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 Cultural/ Technological evolution
-C/R refers to changes that brought socio-economic transformation on human life.
 The period of Cultural revolution conventionally divided into Stone Age, Bronze Age
and Iron Age.
 It was some 2 million years ago that Homo- Habilis practiced tool making, the earliest
tech. transformation.
 Hence, Homo- Habilis the “handy man,” or tool – making man was the first tool making
species of the genus Homo.
 The earliest tools were largely made of stone and quite possibly of wood and bone
although the latter are hardly preserved.
 The age of stone tool technology which is widely known as the period of “stone age”
 The period of stone tools is divided into Three sub-periods.
- the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age, from 3.4 million to 11, 000 years B. P.) was the period
when human being sheltered in caves, developed language, and used stone , bone,
wood, furs, and skin materials to prepare food and clothing.
- Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age /11, 000-10,000 B. P.)
- Neolithic /New Stone Age/10, 000-6, 000 B.P).

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 The Neolithic Revolution

√ The period human beings transformed from mobile to sedentary

way of life.
√ A radical shift from hunting and gathering to food production
√ a hunting and gathering society, now became a thing of the past
√ The beginning of domestication of plants and animals.
√ Led to the development of agriculture - brought about changes
of profound significance on the life of humans for the better.
√ As a result people began to live in large and permanent
settlements.

√ development of agriculture brought about changes of profound

significance on the life of humans for the better.
26
 Contd.

§ Domestication in Ethiopia and the Horn started in the more elevated and
wetter-parts,
§ With the cultivation of indigenous plants including Teff (Eragrotis tejj) dagussa
(Eleusine coracana), nug (Guzotia abyssinica), enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc.
§ The domestication of enset plant (Ensete edule) reduced shifting cultivation
(continuous clearing of new plots), slowing down soil exhaustion.
§ Material culture:- The discovery of polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones,
beads, stone figures and animal remains in sites like Emba-Fakeda around
Adigrat in Tigray as well as Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea suggestive of
Neolithic material culture.
§ Cave painatings from the Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum has provided us
agricultural stone tools.
§ Remains associated with domesticated cattle, chickpeas and vegetables have
been excavated from Lalibela Cave on the southeastern shore of Lake Tana.
Stone tools used for cutting grass and grass like plants as domesticated
animals have been found at Laga Oda rock shelter near Charchar.
§ Evidence for domesticated cattle also comes from around Lake Basaqa near
Matahara. 27
2.3.
The Peopling of the Region :-
Languages and Linguistic Processes

§ The region is marked by ethnic and linguistic

diversity.
§There are about 90 languages with 200
dialects in Ethiopia and the Horn.
§Linguists classify languages of Ethiopia and
the Horn into two major language super
families - Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan.

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 A) Afro-Asiatic:
- with the largest speakers in Ethiopia B) Nilo-Saharan:
- the super family is divided into the following families (Cushitic ,
Semitic and Omotic) and branches
Anywa, Berta,
Cushitic Family:- Gumuz, Kacipo-
1. Northern C: Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea bordering the Sudan.
2. Central C : Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen. Balesi, Komo,
3. Eastern C : this includes diversified linguistic groups like Afar, Ale,
Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba,
Kunama,
Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro,
Tsemai, etc.
Kwama, Kwegu,
4. Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania. Majang, Mi'en,
Semitic: divided into 2 Murie, Mursi,
-1) North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese border);
Tigre (spoken in Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland Eritrea Nara, Nu'er,
and Tigray).
2) South: is further divided into two
Nyangatom,
Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay. Outer: Gafat
(extinct), Gurage and Mesmes (endangered).
Opo, Shabo,
Omotic Family Suri and Uduk.
: Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro,
Dime, Dizi, Garno, Gofa, Hamer, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo,
Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc.
• Lang. process is dynamic some die some are endangered
• Extinct Languages:- eg. Gafat 29
 Economic Formation
√ in Ethiopia and the Horn, two interdependent modes of life /
livelihood: agriculture and pastoralism
√ They coexisted and quite often intermingled .
√ Topographic features and climatic conditions largely influenced
economic activities in Ethiopia and the Horn.
√ Pastoral economy has characterized by the production of camel,
goat, and cattle has been the most common economic practice
among the Afar, Saho and Somali as well as Karayu and Borana
Oromo.
√ While the Afar and Karrayu have depended on the Awash River,
the Somali depended great deal on Wabi Shebelle and Genale
(Jubba) Rivers.
√ The plateaus have sustained by plough agriculture for thousands of
years
√ Sedentary agriculture had been started at least since 10, 000 years
B. P 30
 2.4 Religion and Religious Processes
Indigenous Religion:-
- these are a variety of religious beliefs and practices native to the region and have
been followed by the local people since ancient times.
- A distinctive mark of indigenous religions is belief in Supreme Being, but
special powers are attributed to natural phenomena
Examples:-
- Waqeffanna of the Oromo is based on the existence of one Supreme Being
called Waqa. (Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female) are intermediaries who
maintain link between the Ayyana and the believers.)
- Among the Hadiya the Supreme Being is known as Waa, believed to exist
before everything and created the world (qoccancho)
- The Kambata have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God and religious officials
known as Magnancho.
-The Gedeo Supreme Being is Mageno and had thanks giving ceremony called
Deraro.
- The Konso religion is centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh. The Gojjam Agaw
used to call the Supreme Being Diban (Sky God). Among sections of the
Gurage, there have been Waq/Goita (Supreme Being.
- The Wolayta called God Tosa and spirit Ayyana The Keficho called Supreme
Being as Yero; 31
 Religions with scriptures
Judaism :-
- has been followed in Ethiopia and the Horn by peoples before
Christianity reached the region.
- The Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot (religious practices, which
are generally recognized as Israelite religion that differs from
Rabbinic Judaism).
(from the very ancient migration of some portion of the Tribe of Dan
to Ethiopia, perhaps even at the time of the Exodus (1400-1200
B.C.)
- Other Bete-Israel claim the return to Ethiopia of Menilek I, who
is believed to be the son of King Solomon (r. 974-932 B.C.)
- scholars such as Tadese Tamirat and Kay Shelmay argue that the
Bete-Israel are remnants of old testament followers rather than
turning to Orthodox Christianity /NOT Jews who migrated from
abroad.
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 Christianity
√ Christianity became state religion in 334 AD. during the reign of King Ezana (r.
320-360),
√ earlier it was polytheism – belief in many pre-Christian gods like Ares,
Maharram/war god), Arwe (serpent­ god), Bahir (sea god) and Midir (earth
god),
√ Instrumental in conversion of the king were Syrian brothers, Aedesius and
Ferumentius (Fremnatos).
√ When Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) visited Alexandria, Patriarch
Atnatewos (328-373) appointed him as the first Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox
Church (EOC).
√ Consecration of bishops from Egypt continued until 1959, when Abune Baslios
became the first Ethiopian Patriarch.
√ Exapansion to the mass of people had to wait the later part the 5th C.during
the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) with the coming of the Nine Saints (Abuna
Aregawwi (A. Za Mika'el), A. penteleown, A. Afse, A. Isaq, A. Alef, A Gubba, A. Lqanos, A. Sehama,
A. Yemata.)
- They translated the Bible into Ethiopic/Geez
- They also established monastic centers- late became centers of learning
33
 Missionaries
1) The Jesuits of the mid 16th –the 17th centuries tried to convert to Catholic.
- this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of the Jesuits.
- the Jesuits intervention triggered religious controversies within the EOC to be
discussed later
2) Missionaries of the 19th Century;-
As of 1804, missionaries' through conclusion of treaties between European diplomats
and Ethiopian authorities.
Examples- The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder),
Giustino De Jacobis (Capuchin order founder),
Cardinal Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie were active.

Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary Society of London (CMSL)
and Wesleyan Methodist Society led Protestant missionaries under such leaders as
Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf.
- Systematic approach of trained Protestants enabled them to win confidence of local
people.
- They translated spiritual books into vernaculars.
- Village schools were established as centers of preaching the faith.
- They also provided medical facilities.
*** All these attracted a large number of followers. Eventually,
34
 Islam

§The story of first refuges ( 101 in number) sent by the Prophet himself ("... a
king under whom none are persecuted. It is a land of righteousness, where God will give
relief from what you are suffering." )

- his daughter Rukiya and her husband Uthman

-Prophet's future wives Umma Habiba and Umma Salma to Aksum
-led by Jafar Abu Talib.
§Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b. Abjar or Ahmed al-Nejash in
Arabic sources), gave asylum for the first refuges Lived here from 615- 2828.

§Armah is said to have replied, "If you were to offer me a mountain of gold I
would not give up these people who have taken refugees with me.“

35
 Contd.
√ Subsequently, Islam spread to the Horn of Africa largely through peaceful
ways including trade.
√ Islam was well established in Dahlak Islands on the Red Sea by the
beginning of the 8th century.
√ In the early 10th century, the Muslim community on the islands
developed a Sultanate.
√ Later the most important channel / gateway became the port of Zeila on
western coast of the Gulf of Aden
√ From there into the present day Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe.
√ it radiated to central, southern, and eastern Ethiopia through the role of
Muslim clerics who followed in the footsteps of traders.
√ For example Sheikh Hussein of Bale, a Muslim saint (Waliy) of medieval
period, played very important role in the expansion of Islam into Bale,
Arsi and other southeastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
√ Islam was introduced into Somali territories in the 8th century A. D.
through Benadir coasts of Mogadishu, Brava and Merca. Abu Bakr Ibn
Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu Minirate c.1269.
36
 Unit Three = Politics Economy and Society in Ethiopia and The Horn to the
end of the 13th Century

 A remarkable change in the period was the evolution of states

with diverse socio-cultural and economic settings.
3.1. Emergence of States (**State refers to an autonomous political unit having
population, defined territory, sovereignty and government with the power to decree and enforce laws. )
-An important factor for the emergence of states was the beginning
of sedentary agriculture.
-Peoples had to build houses near cultivated plots fencing both
farming fields and residences
-Families preferred to live together forming larger communities for
better security and to help each other in hard works.
- then came artisans and specialization of production
-intermediaries (traders) also began to buy the products and take to
markets for exchange.
-Therefore, states were formed mainly through the expansion of
agriculture and Trade that gave rise to class differentiation. 37
 3.2 . Ancient States :-

A) The Land of Punt:-

- Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa where early state
formation took place.
- From small beginnings, states gradually developed into powerful
kingdoms and even empires with a well-demarcated social structure.
- Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn.
- The exact location of Punt is still not confirmed, but arguably the
Horn region.
- The evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian hieroglyphic writings,
accompanied by vivid paintings that describes series of naval/
commercial expeditions, which the Egyptian Pharaohs ( such as
Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731, Pharaoh Asosi) sent to Punt.
- The best described expedition was that of Queen Hatshepsut (1490-
1468 B.C.).
- documented at her tomb at Dier El Bahri.
38
 Contd.

- She sent five ships under the leadership of Black Nubian

Captain Nehasi via Wadi-Tumilat.

- Also on record is that the expedition was warmly

welcomed by the Puntites King Perehu, his wife Ati, sons,
daughters and followers.
- Commercial b/s- the expedition returned with frank
incense, cinnamon, sweet smelling woods (sandal), spices,
ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard and leopard skins, ostrich
feathers and egg, live monkeys, giraffes, people etc.
- Hatshepsut presented some parts of the items to her god,
Amun.
39
 B.Da'amat and Other Cultural Centers in N/ Ethiopia and Eritrea

- -Da'amat state and other northern Ethiopian pre-Aksumite cultural

centers.
- The state known as Da'amat had a center a little to the south of
Aksum.
- From Inscription of the king of Da'amat tentatively dated to the
5th C.B.C. -
- Immediate precursor of Axum i.e, some 500 yrs. Before Axum
- Their Kings used politico­religious title known as Mukarib.
- A system where the kings exercised triangular power
( commander of the Army, Chief Judge& Chief priest)
- There were similar practices in South Arabia at the time.
- Worshiped various gods and goddesses like Almouqah (principal
god), Astarr (Venus god), Na'uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god),
and Sin (moon god).

40
 Contd.
Yeha: is located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum and was the oldest
of the centers of Early civilization
- It probably emerged around I, 000 BC where South Arabian
merchants and their agents bought and stored ivory, rhinoceros
horn and other commodities coming from the interior,
- Hence Sergwe H/S calls it the capital of South Arabians
- It seems that the period of its prosperity (zenith) was from about
750 to 500 B.C.
- Remains of walls of some of its buildings and stone masonry as
well as still standing temple (the Temple of Yeha, 7th C.B.C ,
dedicated to the god of Almoqah- built on a hill top in excellent engineering
techniques of dry masonry by joining large dressed blocks of stones. It is a rectangular building
measuring 18.5 by 15 m with a single entrance ) and inscriptions indicate Yeha's
glory.
- There were also other cultural centers like Hawloti Melazo, Addi-Seglemeni ( where the
oldest inscripiton was discovered ) Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera,
Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda etc. 41
 C. The Aksumite State
 Origins - Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C. Initially, its power was limited
to a relatively small area comprising the town of Aksum and its environs. Gradually,
however, it expanded to include large territories in all directions.
 the florescence of the Axumite civilization span the first seven centuries AD.
- The period from 3rd -7th centuries AD could be said the heyday of Axum, a period about
which we have plentiful data suggestive of greater prosperity and military might of Axum.
- By the fourth century, for instance, there are inscriptions from the reign of Ezana, which
record the titles and successes of the Axumite kings, demonstrating that Axum was by
then the metropolis of an extensive empire.
 Territory- In its heyday, Aksumite territories extended from the Red Sea coast in the East
to the Western edge of Ethiopian plateau overlooking the vast Nile Valley in the west and
from the northern most comer of Eritrea and possibly as far south as northern parts of
Shewa.
Expansion - Kaleb (r. 500-35AD) expanded overseas territories of Aksum beyond Himyar
and Saba in S/A (In fact, according to a Sabean inscriptions, expansion to S/Arabia started under
Gadar/Gadrat earlier around the end of the second or the beginning of the third century AD).
 Later a local prince Dhu-Nuwas marched to Zafar and Nagran, and killed many Christians.
Byzantine ruler Justinian I Kaleb with a number of ships to transport armies Dhu Nuwas.
Dhu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed Abraha as governor of Arabia who continued
to rule until 570 A. D.
42
 Economy of Axum
 Trade- both internal and external trade was the mainstay of Axumite Economy
 Much of the data about Axumite trade comes form two important historical sources – The
Periplus and The Christian Topography of Cosmas

 Internal Trade: trade routes from Adulis and other ports on the Red Sea coast stretched
inland through such centers as Kaskasse, Coloe, Matara and even further west across
Takaze River.

 A c c o r d i n g The Christian Topography of Cosmas , there was a gold trade with the
gold rich region in south western Ethiopia called Sasu (probably in Beni Shangul and the
adjoining lands beyond the Blue Nile)
 It was an exchange of cattle, lumps of salt and iron brought by caravan traders including
some agents working for the king to exchange for gold
 conducted without verbal communication because of language barrier, and even without
seeing each other, hence the ‘ Silent trade’

 Gold trade was a state monopoly

 By the time of the Visit of the Periplus the king of Aksum was Zoskales/ Zehqal
- He used to speak the Greek language, the Lingua Franca of Greco-Roman world and
described by Zoskales as ‘ miserly’
43
 Contd.
 T h e P e r i p l u s d e s c r i b e s e x t e r n a l t r a d e t h r o u g h t h e p o r t s o f Aden
(Eudaemon) Gulf like Avalites (Zayla) and Malao (Berbera), and Indian Ocean
Benadir Coasts like Serapion (Moqadishu), Nicon (Brava) and Merca.

 Exports include= natural products / not agricultural? such as ivory, myrrh,

emerald, frankincense and some spices (like ginger, cassia and cinnamon), gold,
rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells and some live animals (eg.
apes).

 Imports = garments and textiles from Egypt, India, the Roman Empire, and
Persia; glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other places; metallic sheets, tools
or utensils of various kinds, oil and wine from the regions of Roman Empire and
Syria were imported.

 Coin minting= from the 3rd- 7th centuries, Aksumite kings like, Endybis, Aphilas
Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II, etc. minted and issued coins in gold, silver and bronze
for both overseas and local transactions.

44
 External Relations and Image
 Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world
according to the Persian envoy Nonnasus (i.e. Roman
Empire, Persia, China and Aksum) at the time.
It was a major naval and trading power from the first to
the seventh centuries.
Aksum had a large fleet of ships, which was used not only
for trade but also for its wars across the Red Sea.
There are signs of ship building plant discovered in
Adulis.
Aksumite kings had contacts with the outside world
notably with the South Arabian region, Rome, Persia
leading to exchange of ideas, material and spiritual
culture. 45
 Material Culture - Pottery , Iron Technology, Monuments
The Monolithic Monuments

The stelae of Axum, which are of several types, are

scattered about a field. Apparently they were meant to
mark grave sites, hence their function is funerary. The
stelae in the environs of Axum do not usually bear
inscriptions, unlike similar stelae found at Mattara and
near Hauzein, with traces of inscriptions which is
informative that their function was commemorative.
There are several small-sized stelae in various places
other than Axum but they are most plentiful near the
assemblage of the giant stelae of Axum.
Seven stelae make up the group of giant stelae in Axum.
Some are over twenty meters high. These seven
conspicuously giant over other funerary stelae of the
whole graveyard were apparently royal tombs.
How many mts. high is the tallest Axumite stele??
Only one of these seven, which is 21mts (20.6 mts to be
precise) high and has ten storeys as well as a false door
at the base, is still standing --The rest five lie broken on
the ground.
The seventh, which has eleven storeys and 24.6 mts
high, was taken to Rome in 1937 by Italian fascists and
erected near the Caracalla Theatre. - The tallest of these
obelisks, which lies broken is 33 mts high and had 13
storeys.
•

46
 Decline and Fall of Axum
§ Contributing Factors
I. The ebbing of resources and climatic changes-
II. Symptoms of decline in the Army-
( Ezana conquered up to Meroe in the 4th C; Kaleb in the early 6th century AD (523-25
AD) sent a huge expedition to South Arabia
- But late in the last decades of the 6 th century, Axum failed to quell a rebellion in South
Arabia led by its own appointed viceroy, Abrha. So also internal rebellions)
III–The Rise of Moslem of Arabia and the Economic Situation
IV. Successive Internal Popular Rebellions
• The Beja Rebellion=,
• The Wolqaite Rebellion
• The Rebellion of the 10th C. Queen of Damot by the name Bani al – Hamwiyah
(according to Arab sources) , or Gudit/ Esato (according to local traditions)
• Bani al-Hamwiyah and her followers are noted for the destruction and havoc
they unleashed upon the city of Axum.
• The Queen and her pagan followers destroyed churches and killed Christians.
The magnitude of her success is reported to have gone to the extent of killing the
contemporary king of Axum (whose name we are not in a position to ascertain)
and took over power for a brief period, according to Ibn Haukal in his book
written in AD 977/78 .
47
 D) Zagwe Dynasty

The Southward Shift of the center:-

 At the eve of the decline of Aksumite state the center shifted southwards to Kubar.
 Arab sources provide us with a list of “cities” to the south of Axum where the Arabs went
for trading that flourished in the 9th and 10th centuries.
 But, of all these ‘mighty cities’, the seat of government or capital was Kubar/Kabar,
which probably was somewhere in southern Tigray or in Angot.

 Al-Yaqubi gives the name of Kabar as capital of the state in the year 872 AD.
 Al Mas’udi (in 935 AD) provides a more conclusive evidence about Kubar/Kabar.
“The capital of Abyssinia is Kubar.
It is a great city and the seat of
the kingdom of the Najashi.”

 Agaw elites had the opportunity to take part in Aksumite politics ; serving as soldiers
and functionaries for at least four centuries. After integrating so well with Aksumite
ruling class, they successfully tookover power.
 Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot was the first king of the Zagwe Dynasty, after a
mysterious power transition
 His successors include Yimirahana Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto
La'ab, Yetbarek etc.
 Ruled form ca. 1150 to 1270 AD.
48
 Contd.
Capital =
 The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District within Wag
and Lasta, more exactly at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).
 The territory of the Zagwe kingdom extended from most of the
highland provinces of the ancient Aksurnite kingdom in the north
down to northern Shewa in the south, the Lake Tana region and the
northern part of what is today Gojjam in the west.
 The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksurnite traditions almost
intact.
 cultivated positive relations with Egypt and Alexandria not always
out of choice but also out of necessity i.e., to ensure the
uninterrupted flow of metropolitan bishops from Alexandria.
 Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and trade contact with eastern
Mediterranean region
 Chrsitanity remained a state religion.

49
 Contd.
 Furthermore, the Zagwe period was a golden age for the
construction of cave, semi--hewn and monolithic churches
1) Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar with natural
cave, eg. Bete mesqel.
2)Semi-hewn and the monolithic churches ( 11 in number) that have
become UNESCO world heritage are unique in constructions with
detailed interior decoration and partial decoration outside.
They are not totally separated from the surrounding rock. Their roofs
or walls are still attached to the rock, eg. Bete Denagil, Bete
Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri'el-
Rufa'el and Bete Abba Libanos.
Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem is the
largest; and Bete Giyorgis is said to be the most finely built in the
shape of the Cross.
Motive= Lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem, thus
construction after the model of Holy Land/ Jerusalem in Israel. 50
 Fall of the Zagwe Dynasty
1) Internal:- succession problem
A) The dynasty often suffered from internal succession problem. The throne rarely passed
from father to son, but either from brother to brother, or from uncle to nephew.
Eg. On the death of Lalibela there was an armed struggle for succession between two
Zagwe princes-Nakuto - Laab the nephew of king Lalibela and Yitbrek
B) to have had a part in the decline and fall of the Zagwe state and the rise of an Amhara-
based dynasty was the emergence of Zeyla, as a new gateway, and the trade route to
interior Ethiopia that stretched from it.
2) External:-
 The hard core of this resistance to the Zagwe dynasty were the ecclesiastical hierarchy
of some of the ancient religious establishments such as the Cathederal of Axum, the
Debre-Damo monastery and the monastery of Hayq. Members of these old
establishments seem to harbour some grievances and anti-Zagwe feelings even when
the kingdom was at the height of its power.
 The uniting ideology was that the Zagwe were accused of usurpation on the grounds
that they did not belong to the Solomonic line of descent .
 From the very start the Zagwe were labeled as “usurpers.”
 There was a widespread belief that their power had been first acquired through an
illegitimate act of usurpation.
 The most important goal of these people was to amplify the “illegitimacy” of Agaw
political power and to restore the old ruling family. 51
 Contd.

 Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285), who claimed decent from the last

Aksumite king Dilna'od, organized his forces and engaged the last
king of Zagwe Dynasty, Yetbarek at the Battle of Gaynt Kirkos .

 In 1270Yekuno-Amlak defeated Yetbarek and took the state

power proclaiming the "restoration" of "Solomonic" Dynasty.

52
3.2.2. Other states in East, Central, Southern Eth.& Horn
3.2.2.1. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat
A) Bizamo: was a kingdom located on the southern bend of Abay River just
opposite to the present districts of Gojjam
- It was founded in the 8th century and had early connections with Damot.
B) Damot: was a in most of the lands the south of Abay and north of Lake
Turkana as well as west of Awash and east of Didessa.
- Motalami was a prominent king of Damot in the 13th c.
C) Enarya: was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia.
- Ruled by divine kingship
- the king was considered sacred
- The royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso).
- royal powere was shared with the Mikretcho (council)
- In the 9th C., Aksumite king Digna-Jan is said to have led a campaign
into Enarya
D) Gafat : territory lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River adjoining Damot
- inhabited by Semitic speaking population related to Harari and the Gurage.
- Gafat mountains provided a rich source of gold.
- Despite efforts by Christian evangelists, the Gafat largely remained practitioners
of their own indigenous religion 53
 3.2.2.2. Muslim Sultanates
§ The emergence of viable Muslim communities along the Zeil;a trade route led to rise
of Muslim states / Sultanates since the 8th century.
§ The earliest of these was the Sultanate of Shewa emerged in the 9th C.
§ Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed decent from Meca, was founder of the
Makhzurnite Sultanate in 896 A. D (283 A.H.) on northeastern foothill of Shewa.
§ Survived until conquered and annexed by the Sulatante Ifat in the 13 th C
§ Sultanate of Ifat was said to be the most powerful and the richest opf The
Muslim Sulatantes of Nmedival Wethiopia
§ located adjacent to Shewan Sultanate.
§ Its territory ran from northeast-southwesterly in the Afar plain eastward to the Awash.
§ Ruled by the Walsma Dynasty established byUmar Walasma, who claimed descent t
from Hashamite s of Arabia between 1271 and 1285.
§ The sultanate was fertile and well watered. Its inhabitants earned their living from
cultivation of wheat, sorghum, millet and tejf, and animal husbandry. Sugar cane,
bananas, variety of fruits, beans, squashes, cucumbers, and cabbage completed the
diet. Chat was described for the first time as being consumed as a stimulant.
§ Other Muslim states include:- Bali , Deawaro, Fatagar, Arababani (between
Hadiya and Dawwaro), Biqulzar, Dera (between Dawaro and Bali), Fadise,
Gidaya, Hargaya, Harla, Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah (West of Dawaro and North
of Bali .
54
 1. External Contact
2.Agriculture and Land Tenure System

External contact was largely influenced by the Legened of the Prester J/ I

§ Around the middle of the 12th century, ( at about the time of the Crusades) a myth about
a very rich and powerful Christian ruler known as Prester John began to circulate in
Europe.
§ The geographical location of the country of Prester John was not known to Europe for over
a century. However, the Europeans began to regard Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as the
land of Prester John
§ Then, they began to search for the location of the Kingdom and to make an alliance with

Agriculture and Land Tenure System

-Peasants in the north had rist rights in their respective areas.
- Rist is a kind of communal birthright to land by members of the families and clans whose
ancestors had settled and lived in the area over long periods.
- It is inherited/ herritable right to land according to customary law.
- rist owners were known as bale-rist. Yet, they paid tributes to the state and all land
belonged to the state theoretically.
- Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners' produce. The tribute collected by bale-gults,
partly allotted for their own up keep and the rest were sent to the center.
- Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste-Gult as prominent well­ placed officials
used to transfer their position to their decsendants.
55
 UNIT FOUR: POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE 13th-
13th – TO THE BEGINNING OF 16th CENTURIES

Issues to be treated:
The "restoration" of the "Solomonic" Dynasty
succession problems,
territorial expansion
 evangelization and
 the flourishing trade that further invigorated
extensive socio-cultural interactions among
different peoples who lived in different agro-
ecological zones

56
 4.1. The "Restoration" of the "Solomonic" Dynasty

 Why do we put "Restoration" in quotation mark?

-Restoration in quotation marks was based on the “usurpation”
and “illegitimate” rhetoric
- Solomonic in quotation marks b/s the claim of descent from
King Solomon of Israel is legendary , based on the story of
Queen of Ashebas visist to Israle later elaborated on Kibre
Negest ("Glory of Kings")

-The Kibre Negest claims that Ethiopian ruling class descended

from the line of Menilek I, son of the Queen of Sheba and King
Solomon of Israel. As a result, Ethiopian monarchs from Yikuno­
Amlak to Emperor Haile-Silassie I claimed descent from
Menilek I.

57
 4.2.1. Succession Problem and the Establishment of a 'Royal
Prison' of Amba Gishen
 Right from the reign of Yegba-Tsion (r.1285-94) political instability
caused by constant power struggles among sons and grandsons of
yekuno Amalak
 The power struggle intensified during the reigns of Yegba-Tsion's
five sons ( who reigned during those 5 years, I 294 to 1299)
 Addressed by establishing a royal Prison at Amaba Geshen in n
ca.1300 during the reign of Widim-Ra'ad (r. 1299-1314).
 Amba-Gishen located in present day southern Wollo where
 all male members of the royal family were confined until one
among them was instituted to poewer heavily guarded by loyal
soldiers to the reigning monarch
 When a monarch dies, an army would be sent to the royal prison to
fetch the next king /successor and put him on the throne.
 This practice continued until Amba-Gishen was destroyed by Imam
Ahmad Ibrahim Al-Ghazi's force in 1540.
58
 4.2.2 . Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the
Christian Kingdom
Mobile Capital=
§the CHK had no permanent capital. Capital was rather
mobile
§ According to al Umari , Tent capital, shifting from place
to place at various intervals
§Initially, the center of the "restored" dynasty was in
medieval Amhara (today's South Wollo) around Lake
Haiq.
§ However, it gradually shifted southward to the districts
of Menz, Tegulet, Bulga, and finally to the regions
dominated by the great height of the Yerer, Entoto,
Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi and Zequalla mountains.
59
 Territorial Expansion
§ Most rulers of the CHK were expansionists with varying
degree of success

§All of them embarked on expansion and consolidating

their territories

§Yekuno Amalk strated it. the territorial limit of the

Christian Kingdom mainly in present day Tigray, Lasta,
medieval Amhara and Shewa.

§Amde-Tsion (r.1314-44), however was the most

successful expansionist and empire builder
60
 Map 4: Trade Routes and Muslim Sultanates in Medieval Ethiopia

61
 Amda Tsion, Contd.
 Amde-Tsion subdued rebellions in all directions an attempt to end centrifugal
tendencies,
 he expanded his territory into Agaw (Awi) of Gojjam around 1323/4;
 Bizamo and Damot in 1316/7;
 Bete-Israel (located between Denbiya and Tekeze River) around 1332; and the
Red Sea Coast.
 In the north, consolidate d the control of the Christian state over the coastal
areas of Massawa,
- He gave Enderta (in today's northeastern Tigray) to his wife Bilen-Saba.
- Bahr-Sagad, the son of Amde-Tsion, assigned to become the governor of Tigray.

 In 1325, Amde-Tsion campaigned to today's Eritrean region. After controlling the

whole region, he appointed a governor with a title of Ma'ekale-Bahir, which
later on changed to Bahire-Negash.

 Ifat offered the stiffest even by organizing a league with other Muslim Sultanate
until; it was subdued in 1332.

62
 Evangelization, Religious Movements, and Religious Reforms of Zara-Yaqob

I. Evangelization
 This period had witnessed a period of expansion of Christianity
 Christianity had a long history of expansion into various parts of the Horn of Africa.
For instance,
- in Shewa there were early Christians who maintained contacts with their distant
relatives in Northern Ethiopia.
- In the 13th C. Eyesus-Mo'a opened new opportunities of learning for Christians who
lived in the central part of Ethiopia and later evangelized the newly incorporated
areas .
 The territorial expansion carried out by Amde-Tsion during the medieval period set
an addition momentum for the spread of Christianity.
- Abune Tek.le-Haymanot ( 13th c.) played a key role in the expansion of Christianity in
Shewa.
- The clergy, under the direction of, Yaqob, spread Christianity to different areas of
Shewa such as Kil'at, Tsilalish, Merhabite, Wereb, Moret and Wegda, and
Fatagar, Damot, Waj and Enarya.
-******** Other than the Conquest, the role played by monasticism and
the expansion of monastic centers since the mid 13th c. was pivotal in the
process of evangelization .
63
 T
The Ewostatewos Movement

- Abba Ewostatewos was founder and spiritual leader

- The movement started in Sara'e (Eritrea). where Ewostatewos
established his own monastic community
-There, he was joined by many students and taught until 1337
- major teaching - the strict observance of Sabbath.
- but opposed by the clergy in Sera'e, he fled the country to
Egypt. He faced the same opposition in Cairo
Ewostatians soon became active and dispersed to areas like
Enfraz, northern Tigray, and Hamessen.
§ At home the King and the Abun opposed the movement.

§ A group led by the Abbot of the Hayq Monastery called Aqabe-

Se'at Sereqe­ Birhan was supported by the Abun and the
monarch to do away the Ewostatian threat.
64
 B)Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites

§ -Abba Estifanos the established a rigid monastic

organization was founder and spiritual leader called
after the name of the founder
§ Got prominence in the 15th and 16th centuries
§Teachings = emphasized poverty, absolute self-
subsistence, equality and autonomy from secular
authorities

§Later Estifanites softened their position, and

excommunication was lifted.
§ Afterwards reintegrated into the EOC during the
period of Metropolitan Abune Yeshaq.
65
 The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob
 Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) took several measures to consolidate
the Orthodox Church.
-he settled the conflict among the Ethiopian clergy
-made peace with the House of Ewostatewos by reviving Sabbath in
the Ethiopian church
-In return Ewostatian agreed to receive Holy orders from the Ethiopian
prelates (higher ecclesiastics).
-he ordered the people to observe fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays
and get Father Confessors.
-Further, he urged the clergy to preach Christianity in remote areas.
- To combat the problem of lack of sufficient religious books the king
encouraged the establishment of a library in every church.
§ his period witnessed the revival of religious literature.
- He himself wrote books like Metsafe-Birhan, Metsafe-Me 'lad,
Metsafe­Sillasie, Metsafe-te'aqebo Mister,etc. In addition, during his
reign, some parts of Te'amre­Maryam were translated from Arabic to
Geez. 66
 4.3.Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim Sultanates
The Rise of Adal: After the conquest of 1328- 1332 ( by Amade Tsion b/s of
Ti'iyintay incident / crisis i.e, Haqaddin stopped merchants belonging Amde-Tsion,
confiscating their goods, capturing, and imprisoning the king's agent, Ti'iyintay
returning from Cairo. These actions forced Amde-Tsion to wage a campaign against
Haqaddin I in 1328; )
- the ensuing political arrangement reduced Ifat to a vassalage ruled by Walasma
rulers of nominal authority, hand-picked by A/T
- Ifat, Fatagar and Dawaro were incorporated and became tributary and weak
§ Some members of the Walasma ruling house defied this arrangement and (Ifat
was becoming an easy target to the Christian Kingdom due to its location) set
out to stage an enduring resistance to Christian domination from another center
in far east.
§ This group ( led by Haqadin )moved further to the eastern lowlands and established
new base at Wahal, which later evolved to become the Sultanate of Adal. (About
1363/4-1373-4)
§ the Sultanate of Adal emerged as a platform of militant Islamic resistance to the
authority of the Christian kingdom. In the decades that followed, Adal became the focal
point and center of militant Islam and Islamic resistance to the hegemony of the HCK.
§ The Sultanate of Adal (from its capitals, first at Dakar (near Harar) then in 1520 moved
to Harar ), was the chief adversary of the highland Christian kingdom. 67
 Contd.
§ The establishment of Adal could be said to have inaugurated a new
era in the history of the relationship between the HCK and the
Sultanates of the South-an epoch characterized by a vicious circle
of bloody hostilities led by Adal.
- For the coming more than a century period military engagements
between Adal and the Christian state, punitive expeditions and
cross-border raids (initiatives taken by one or the other side) was
a fact of life.
- For instance, Haqadin II, the Walasma founder of Adal, himself was killed in
action in 1373/74 by Newaya-Maryam (1371-80), son and successor of Sayfa-
Arad. Haqadin II was succeeded, as Sultan of Adal, by his brother Sadadin who
continued with the aggressive policy of his predecessor. He, for long, staged a
series of raids and destructive assaults with a considerable degree of success
until he was finally captured and killed in 1403 by an army led by king Dawit
(1380-1412). Dawit personally marched as far as Zeyla pursuing Sadadin. King
Dawit’s immediate successors, Tewodros (1412-1413) and Yeshaq (1413-1430),
were not as lucky as emperor Dawit. Both are reported to have been killed while
campaigning in Adal. 68
 contd

§ A reversal for Adal was when Emperor Zara Yaqob in 1445,

defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay at the battle of Yeguba.
§ As a result, the son and successor of Ahmed Badlay, Mohammed
Ahmed (r.1445-71) sent a message of submission to Ba'ede
Mariam (r. 1468-78) to remain vassal of the Christian Kings
§ Mohammad ibn Azhar ad-Din (1488-1518) attempted to
smoothen relations with the Christian Kingdom.
§ But, at times like in the Emir Mahfuz carried out some effective
military campaigns and raids, especially during lent into the
highlands.
§ In 1517 Emir Mahfuz died fighting against Emperor Lebne-Dengel's
(r. 1508-40) force
§ And his son-in-law, Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, popularly
known as Ahmed Gragn or the "left-handed" took over the
leadership.
69
 External Relations

Relations with Egypt

1) From the late thirteenth century onwards, the Christian Kingdom
needed to maintain relations with Egypt, which was mainly religious in
character requesting an Abun )
§ 1272, Yekuno-Amlak sent an emissary to Egypt's Sultan, Baybaros
requesting an Abun from the Coptic Church.
2) The other reason was that both Egypt and Ethiopia acted as
protectors of religious minorities in their respective domain.
§ In 1437/8, Zara-Yaqob wrote a friendly letter to Sultan Barsbay
requesting the protection of Christians in Egypt.
3) Egypt also wanted to ensure secure flow of the Nile (the Abay
River) that originated from Ethiopia.
§ For example, In the early 14th c, Mohammed ibn Qala'un persecuted
the Copts and destroyed their churches in Cairo. In response, Amde-
Tsion demanded the restoration of the churches and warned that
failure to do so would result in the diversion of the Nile waters.
70
 Relations with Christian Europe

§ Relations with Christian Europe was largely shaped by the legend of

the"Prester John of the Indies"
§ Europe even thought that it was possible to liberate Jerusalem with
the help of this King.
§ The earliest known message to Ethiopia from a European monarch
is the letter of King Henry IV of England dated 1400 A.D. and
addressed to "Prester John", the purported king of the Christian
Kingdom.
§ In 1402, King Dawit sent his first delegation to Europe led by a
Florentine man called Antonio Bartoli.
- Alphonso de Paiva V of Aragon received a delegation from Yishaq in the city of Valentia, in
1427. Yishaq's delegation to Europe was to ask for more artisans and military experts.
- King Zara-Yaqob sent delegates to Alphonso to get political, military, and technical
assistance. Alphonso wrote a letter to Zara­ Yaqob and informed him that he has sent him
artisans and masons he requested.
-visitors such as Venetian Gregorio visited Ethiopia in 1482. Pedros da Covilhao/ visited the
court of Eskindir (1478-1494), in 1493. 71
 Contd.
- The most authentic pieces of evidence on Ethio-Europe links are
the maps of Egyptus Novelo (c. 1454) and Fra Mauro's
Mappomondo (1460) which clearly depicted many places and
peoples in central Ethiopia.
§ Relations with Christian Europe strengthened by Queen Eleni.
- Queen Elleni (the daughter of Hadiya Garad , married to King Zara
Yaeqob) played an important role in this relations.
- She had foreseen the threat that came from the Ottoman Turkish
who showed a clear interest to support the Muslim Sultanates ,
sought relations with Portugal
- In 1508, Portugal sent an envoy to act as an ambassador to
Christian Ethiopia.
- Around 1512, Queen Elleni, the mother and regent of Lebne-
Dengel sent an Armenian called Mathew to Portugal.
- The” First Portuguese Embassy “ led by Rodrigo di Lima, Duwarto
Galliba and Francisco Alvarez reached Ethiopia in 1520 and
remained for six years. 72
 Unit V. POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE EARLY 16 th TO
THE END OF THE 18th Century
5.1.Conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal and After
§ This unit discusses socio-economic and political developments from
16th - late18th.
§ Major developments
- expansion of trade,
- conflicts between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates &
the ensuing foreign interventions;
- population movements of the Afar, the Somali, the Argoba and the
Oromo;
- religious expansions,
- interaction of peoples and the resultant integration
- societies and states in different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn that
passed through different historical processes.
- The Gondarine Period (1636-1769),
- Zemene Mesafint (1769-1855)
- the Yejju rule (1786-1853). 73
Conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal and After

§ The interest to control trade routes lay at the heart of the

conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim
Sultanates that continued for over two centuries, culminating in
the wars that lasted from 1529 to 1543 ( The Gragn wars) .
§ The wars are usually depicted as wars for religious supremacy in
historical accounts of Christian and Muslim clerics.
§ Not true , religion only provided ideological justification for the
wars.
§ power relations in the center- periphery equation, mal­
administration and exploitation of the periphery made was
pivotal that ultimately helped military mobilization maong the
southerner stats.

74
 Contd.

§ While a weak leadership by young princes in the CHK,

(From 1478 to the beginning of the Gragn wars, the average age of a newly crowned monarch at the time of his ascension was not more than
eleven. King Naod (1494-1508), who seized power at the age of 20, was an exception. To mention just a few, Amda-Tsion II (Naod’s son) was less
than six when he assumed power. Iskinder (1478-94) succeeded Ba’da Maryam as king of the HCK only at the age of six. Lebne Dengel seized power
in 1508 at the age of eleven )

§ among the Muslim Sultanates, internal strife, corruption and anarchy was intensified a
anew leadership militant and with the ability to mobilize pastoralist groups ( The Afar ,
the Somali and The Argoba) emerge in the person of Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi
§ The origins of Imam Ahmed, ( "the left­handed) "
- born at Hubet in between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga and raised by his devout Muslim kin in
one of the oases on the route to Zeila.
- He was a devout Muslim.
- His political career started as a replacement of Garad Abun
- was son-in-law of Mahfuz and originally a knight in the cavalry unit commanded by
Garad Abun.
- At the death of his master, Gragn disregarding the contemporary Sultan of Adal
( Abubaker) and seized power in 1525.
- From 1525 onwards Ahmad was in full control of the affairs of the state of Adal making
preparations for his grand scheme of the Futuh al-Habasha (The conquest of
Abyssinia).
75
- The Imam’s early military operations essentially followed the
traditional method of raiding frontier districts and return to Adal
with as much larger booty as possible.
- An incident which can be cited as the first major success of the
Imam on the HCK was the military encounter in 1527 at which
the emperor’s governor of Bali, Azmach Deglahan (sent by
Lebne-Dengel himself), suffered defeat in the hands of Gragn.
- This deeply frustrated the Christian state while it encouraged
the Imam to invade and devastate the Christina-ruled provinces
of Fatagar Dewaro and Ifat.
- Gragn’s military strike on these frontier provinces of the HCS
continued unabated throughout the coming two years until the
final showdown between the two sides at Shimbra Kure ( near
Mojjo ) in 1529, where Christian resistance was shattered.

76
 Contd.
- After the victory, the Imam's army made a large-scale control of the
territories of the Christian Kingdom including Shewa, Amhara, Lasta,
and moved as far no1th as Mereb Melash.
- By 1535, Imam Ahmed's empire stretched from Zeila to Massawa
Imam Ahmed established a civil administrative bureaucracy
constituted from his own men and newly recruited personnel from
the Christian territories.
- On the part of the Christian Kingdom, the military setback forced the
Lebne­Dengel, to retreat finally dying in 1540 as a fugitive .
- His son and successor, Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559), continued to
face the challenge with more intensity as Imam Ahmed had received
Turkish musketeers.

- In 1540, the Imam turned to Turkey, for assistance and Ottoman

authorities provided 200 musketeers and 10 cannons.
-
77
 Contd.
Another foreign intervention on earlier request made in 1535, 400
Portuguese soldiers, armed with matchlocks arrived in 1541.
§ The force was led by Christopher da Gama, the youngest son of
Vasco da Gama. However, in August 1542 the Christian army was
defeated in Ofla,
§ However, on February 25, 1543 while Imam Ahmed was
encamped near Lake Tana, he was attacked and killed after a
fierce fighting at the battle of Woyna-Dega.
§ A factor was Z wrong decision made by Imam following ofala
§ confident about his army's ability to repulse any future attack the
Imama sent the Turks back home
§ Whereas CHK, made preparations for final confrontation under
the leadership of Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59).
§ Due to limited resources, the monarch employed hit and run
strategy, which severely affected Imam's army. Imam Ahmed's
army could not use its previous advantage of easy mobility
because they did not know where the attacks came from. 78
 The role of women

§- the wife of the Imam, Bati Del Wanbara, the daughter of

a Muslim military commander of Adal known as Mahfuz.
Was inspitrational to her husband to avenge the death of
her father.
§She accompanied her husband throughout his
expeditions and she is said to have marched ( according
to tradition) even in a state of pregnancy during which
she was unable to use mules.
§she delivered her two sons during the campaigns of 1531
and 1533 in Ifat and Tigray respectively.
- Lebne-Dengel's wife Seblewongel is said to have
participated in the war against Imam Ahmed in 1542
when the army of the Christian Kingdom lost almost half
of the Portuguese soldiers after Ofla 79
- Soon after the battle, Gelawdewos was confident that the nobility and his army
were loyal to him. As a result, the king restored possession of almost all the
northern and central plateau.
-The king attempted to reconsolidate the state through campaigns to different
areas and camping the Chewa (regiment) in border areas.
- By the early 1550s, Gelawdewos had established a strong Christian Kingdom. In
the period, the growing challenge to the Christian state came from the retreating
soldiers of the Sultanate of Ada!, the Ottoman Turks, Jesuit interlude, and Oromo
advance into the center.
Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn al­ Waazir Mujahid was ready to avenge the
Christian state for revenge.
In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted Gelawdewos and killed the king
himself.
- Lingering Turkish problem and Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563) who succeeded
Gelawdewos defeated the Turks' force and reclaimed territories in the coast
including Dabarwa.
- However, in the early 1560s, Yishaq revolted and allied with the Turks against
him. Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598) had to defend his territory from the
Turks 80
 Consequence of the Muslim- Christian Conflict

§One of the most obvious consequence is the huge

human and material loss.
§It is also evident that both the Muslim Sultanate and
Christian Kingdom were weakened thereby paving the
way for the success of the advancing Oromo population
movement.
§On the positive side, it should be restated that the war
resulted in cultural interaction among the peoples of
Ethiopia.
§Linguistic and religious interactions accompanied by
intermarriages among peoples of the various cultural
groups
81
 5.2.Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies
The coming of the Jesuits:
 In 1557, several Jesuit missionaries along with their bishop, Andreas de Oviedo,
came to Ethiopia to expand Catholicism. The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine
of two, natures of Christ-divine and human, which was contrary to Monophysite
theology (Christ, through union or Tewahedo had a perfect human nature
inseparable from the divine. ) of Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
 The leading members of the mission to evangelize the country include Joao
Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez and Alfonso Mendez.
 The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59),
hoping that the rest of the society would follow .
 Gelawdewos engaged in doctrinal debates, did not give in.
 Instead, he defended the teachings of Orthodox Christianity in a document
entitled the Confession of Faith.
 Minas and Sertse-Dengel, who succeeded Gelawdewos one after the other,
were too busy fighting against the Oromo and the Turkish did not have time for
Jesuits
 Relative success with Emperor Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4), who was said to have been
sympathetic to Catholicism.
 Yet Za-Dengel's reign was too short for the Jesuits to get what they want. 82
 Contd.

 Susenyos challenged by provincial leaders who refused to pay tribute,

wanted to consolidate his power through Portuguese alliance and
support.
 got that through the diplomatic advisory service of one of the Jesuit
fathers, Pedro Paez.
 In 1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism
 announced it to be state religion later in 1622.
 This resulted in in 1617-8 several anti­- Catholic voices mounted
following the changes in liturgy .
-reconsecration of Orthodox priests and deacons and rebaptism of
the mass
- he called for the suspension of Old Testament customs such as male
circumcision and the observance of the Sabbath.
-prohibition of preaching in Ge'ez,
-fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays,
-reverence for Ethiopian saints and the Ark of Covenant (Tabot).
eating pork, Latin Mass and Gregorian calendar to be adopted. 83
 Contd.
- After 1625, controversies, rebellions, repressions mounted to a
Civil war
- In a battle in June 1632, large number of peasants lost their lives in
one day.
- Finally, the emperor abdicated the throne in favor of Fasiledas, who
reversed the threat
- Fasiledes restored the position of Orthodox Church as the state
religion
- expelled the Jesuits and punished local converts including
Susenyos' brother and the most fervent supporter of Catholicism,
Se'ela Kristos.
- fearing a possible comeback, introduced a "closed-door" policy,
which isolated the country from all Europeans for about a century
and a half. Conversely,
- instead adopted a policy of close diplomatic relations with the
Islamic world and formed an alliance with the neighboring Muslim
states to ensure that no European crossed into the Kingdom. 84
 Contd.
In consequence,
- Ethiopia's diplomatic break from Europe remained effective until the
beginning of the nineteenth century
- Exception was visits by a French Doctor Charles Jacques Poncet and
the Scottish traveler James Bruce in 1700 and 1769, respectively.
- The Jesuit intervention triggered doctrinal divisions and controversy
within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church that was divided into
disputant sects and reached its peak during the Zemene Mesafint.
a) Tewahedo teaches Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ dominant in Tigray and
Lasta.
b) Qibat (Unction) the eternal birth as the first birth of Christ, but claimed that at
the moment of his incarnation, when he was born into the world, Holy Ghost
anointed him. (dominant in Gojjam)
c) Sost Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace) taught that Christ was
first born in eternity as divine being, was born again in the womb of St. Mary and
anointed by Holy Ghost. This sect was dominant in Gonder and Shawa.

85
 5.3.1. Population Movements of the Argoba, Afar, and Somali

- The military conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the

Sultanate of Adal in the late 15tyh &16th C were partly
responsible for the population movement of the Argoba, Afar and
Somali.
- Their territories lay in the region where trade routes passed and
hence were affected by the consequences of the military conflict.
These peoples moved back and forth in response to the ongoing
military conflict
- In addition, environmental pressure was alsofactor for the
population movement..
the Argoba were major agents of Islamic expansion, trade and
Muslim state formation in the Hom.
-the sultanate of Shewa and Ifat were established by the Argoba
- The sultanate of Ifat, in which the Argoba were dominant, became
the center of Muslim resistance.
- On the eve of the wars of Imam Ahmed al Ghazi, the Argoba 86
 Contd .

The Afar: before the sixteenth century, due to drought, the Afar
moved towards the east until they reached the middle Awash.
- Trade routes linking the ports in the Horn passed through the
Afar's territory.
- Therefore, the region was the centre of competition between
the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim sultanates to control
the trade routes.
- being actors in the conflict, the conflict inevitably pressurized
the Afar to move into different directions to avoid the risk of
the conflicts.
The Somali: their territory lay in the region traversed by major
trade routes during medieval period.
- there was environmental pressure
- The population movement of the Somali was a strong force
behind the military strength of the Imam.
87
 5.3.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

 The Gadaa system was an institution through which the Oromo socially organized
themselves, administered their affairs, defended their territories, maintained law and
order, and managed their economies.
 The major principle was that- sons joined the first grade as members of Gadaa class
(generation class or set) forty years after their fathers
- were initiated into the next higher grade every eight years.
- The following table shows a common version of age-grades and roles associated to
them.
Table Il: Age-grades and their roles
Gadaa-grade Age Roles

Dabale birth-8 years socialization

Game 9-16

Folle 17-24 military training, agriculture etc

Oondala 25-32 military service

Raba-Dori 33-40 candidates for political power

Luba 41-48 leaders of Gadaa government

Yuba 49 to 80 senior advisors, educators and ritual leaders

88
 Contd.
 The head of the government was known as Abba-Gadaa (literally
"father of the period“)
 was assisted by several elected representatives from among the
generation set
-eg. Abba Bokku (father of scepter),
-Abba Chaffie = head of the assembly),
- Abba-Dula = war leader
- Abba Sera = father of law
-Abba Alanga= judge), Abba Sa'a (father of treasury)
 there is the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played indispensable
roles in power transfer and legitimizing the ruling gadaa class.
 Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe institution, which
helped them to form sisterhood and solidarity.
 levels of transition – from childhood to old age i.e. guduru (pre-
pubescent), qarre (adolescent, ready for marriage), kalale (wives
of Luba and Yuba) and cifire (wives of Gadamojji/above 80 years) 89
 B) The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

- A combination of natural and manmade factors caused the Oromo

population movement of the 16th &17th C. such as:-
- Natural factors include demographic pressure &need for land to
accommodate the growing population.
- the conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim
Sultanates pressurized pastoral Oromo to leave the lands they
inhabited.
- when the movt. began, the Oromo were already organized
under Borana and Barentu confederacies.
- The Oromo forces took northern direction and passed through a
corridor between Mount Walabu and Lake Abbaya. When they
reached half way between Lakes Abbaya and Hawassa, they took
westward and penetrated across the Bilatte River to the
southwest. Then they headed northwards to the lakes region of
the Rift Valley.
90
 contd
- From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars.
- the first Gadaa i.e Melba (1522-1530) fought and defeated Christian regiment
Batra Amora led by Fasil and occupied Bali
- while Mudena (1530-8) reached the edge of Awash River.
- The Kilole (1538- 46) controlled Dawaro after defeating Christian regiment Adal
Mabraq
- while Bifole (1546- 54) advanced to Waj and Erer.
- The Michille (1554-62) scored victory over Hamalmal's force at Dago, and Jan
Amora forces as well as Adal led by Emir Nur Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo.
- The Harmufa (1562-70) fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina and Wayyata;
occupied Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc
- In 1574, Sartsa Dingil's (r.1563-97) cavalry led by Azzaj Halibo defeated Robale
gadaa (1570-78) at Woyna Daga,
- but Robale recovered by defeating Zara'a Yohannis' force.
- The Birmaji (1578-86) controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama to Wolaqa and
overwhelmed the Daragoti regiment.
- The Mul'ata (1586-94) seized Darnot, Bizamo, Gafat, Dambiya and Tigray.
 others like the Warday moved to Kenya and Bur Haqaba and Majertin in
Somalia
91
- In the course of their movement into various regions, different
Oromo branches established Gadaa centers.
- Accordingly, Oda Nabee of Tulama, Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando
(Arsi), Oda Bultum of Itu-Humabenna, Oda BisiI of Mecha and
Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha became major Gadaa centers.
- Consequences:-
- One of the major consequences of the interactions in the medieval period
particularly in the population movement was the integration of peoples
- diverse ethnic groups, cultures, and religions from south to north and from
east to west.
- Eg. the territorial and religious expansion by the Christian kingdom diffused
Christian tradition from north to the south.
- Similarly, the wars of Imam Ahmed and the population movements of the
Argoba, the Afar and the Somali caused the expansion of lslam into the
central parts of Ethiopia.

92
 Contd.
- integrations among peoples across ethnic and religious
background. The Oromo had instititions for Integrating otrhers.
- They integrated non-Oromo through two adoption mechanisms:
Guddifacha and Moggasa.
- Guddifacha refers to the adoption of a child by a foster parent
where the child enjoyed equal rights and privileges with a
biological child.
- Moggasa was a system of adopting non-Oromos commonly
known as Oromsu. Moggasa was the practice of incorporation of
individuals or groups to a clan through oath of allegiance
- . The adopted groups gained both protection and material
benefits. The process significantly contributed to the social
cohesions, national integration, and the revival of long-distance
trade.
- The Oromo population movts. also put an end to the wars
between the Christian and Muslim states as well as the southward
expansion of the Christian state. 93
5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Regions

It is not possible in the space of a brief teaching

module such as this to provide an exhaustive detail
of societies and states in eastern, central, southern,
and western parts of the country in the period
covered by this unit.

A survey course: this section explores the history

of some of the states (as illustrations) in the period
under consideration. Although there was no one
criterion used to select the states,

94
 5.5.1. Peoples and States in the East / The Somali, The Afar, Argoba, Harar

The Somali :
- inhabited vast territory in the Horn.
- the Somali practiced pastoral economy and moved between places for centuries
State formation : according to an Arab geographer called Tun Said (1214-86), Merca town
located in the southern Somali coast was a capital that brought large number of Somalis
together during the 13th c.
- The songs celebrating King Yeshaq (r. 1413-30) military success show the Somali lived
close to the frontiers of the Christian Kingdom.
- Somali contingents also played important role in the victories of the Sultanate of Adal
against the CHK.
- AFAR : predominantly lived in northeastern Ethiopia and in northern Djibouti,
- some inhabited southern part of Eritrea.
- Afar indigenous governance system known as Makabanto, which has some elements of
democracy.
- Mention about Adal on records was by Ibn Said during 13 th C.
- historical cities such as Maduna and Abasa exsisted in Afar territory
- After the 16th C., the Afar established Sultanates such as Awsa, Girrifo, Tadjourah, etc.
- Awsa declined and temporarily ended in conjunction with Imam Umar Din bin Adam's
ascension to the throne. The Sultanate was subsequently re­established by Kedafo around
1734, and there after ruled by the Mudaito Dynasty.
- Later it became center of Islamic learning led by preachers like Tola Hanfire.
95
 Contd.
Argoba : Discussed in some detail earlier
The Emirate of Harar
- Harar is one of the earliest Muslim centers in of Ethiopia and the Horn.
- In the 16th C,
- Harar became the capital of Walasma of Adal replacing Dakar until 1577
- Due to the pressure from the Oromo, Harar Emirate moved its center to Awsa

- Later during the reign of Emir Nur Mujahid, Harar became a walled city
- In mid 17th c., Emir Ali ibn Da'ud (r. 1647-62) established a dynasty that ruled for
two centuries and later strengthened by Amirs like Abdul Shakur (1783-94). ‘
- during which the emirate grew in importance to be a steady center of Islamic
culture and power.
- it controlled trade routes from the Gulf of Aden ports of Zeila and Berbera.
- Its authority was established over the surrounding Oromo and Somali through
trade, inter-marriage, and expansion of Islamic teachings.
- Egypt sent an expeditionary in 1875 and controlled the emirate for nearly a
decade.
- The Emirates later restored and ruled by Amir Abdulahi, as the last emir of the
Sultanate for two years, 96
- Until the onset of Emperor Menilek's expansion to the region 1887.
 Contd.

The Kingdom of Shewa : another organized polity formed by a

Menz ruler Negasi Kristos (r.1696-1703)
- Eventually expanded ( territorial expansion was regular) and
controlled districts like Asandabo, Debdabo, Mafud and Yifat.
- The second king was Merid Azmatch Sebestie/Sebastyanos
(r.1703-18).
- Abuye/ Abiyye (1718-45) who made Haramba, his capital and
tried to subjugate the surrounding Oromo before he was killed
by the Karrayu Oromo.
- Amaha Iyesus/ Amayyes (r.1745-75) declared authority over
Bulga, Efrata, Menz and Tegulet with his capital at Doqaqit
- Asfa-Wosen (r.1775- 1808) conquered Antsokia, Asbo, Gedem,
Gishe, Merhabete, Morat anti Shewa Meda.

97
 Contd.
- Shewa became very strong under Negus Sahle-Sellasie (r.1813-47), the
grandfather of Emperor Menilek II.
- For the first time used the title Negus
- During his reign, many travelers visited Shewa and he even signed "treaty of
friendship and commerce" with the British in 1841. ( with William Harris, also
with France with Rochet D’ Harricourt
- Shewa's economy was mainly based on agriculture supplemented by trade and
craft. Near the capital, Ankobar,
- Aleyu Amba was an important trade center crisscrossed by trade routes
The Gurage
- are divided into the Western and Northern Gurage.
- The Western are also known as Sebat Bet Gurage
- They include: Chaha, Muher, Ezha, Gurner (Inamor, Enner, Endegegna and
Gyeto).
- The Northern G. are variously known as Kistane, Aymallal or Soddo Gurage.
- Additional groups included Dobbi, Gadabano and Masqan.
- The staple crop in Gurageland is enset.
- The Gurage had traditional system of governance known as the Yajoka Qicha
among the Sebat Bet and the Gordanna Sera among the Kistane. 98
 Contd.
The Kambata:
- By about 1550-70, four communities of separate origin formed the contemporary
state of Kambata which means, ''this is the place"
- The first one, Kambata in the narrow sense, had its original homeland around Mount
Hambericho in the heartland of Kambata territory.
- The other three namely the Dubamo, Donga and Tembaro trace their homeland from
Sidama highlands.
- Emperor Yeshak (r.1413-30) annexed Kambata proper and controlled the area
between Omo and Bilate Rivers, which he incorporated into the Christian kingdom

- In 1532, the region was captured by Imam Ahmed's army,

- The people were ensete farmers sharing similar culture and speaking
the same language called Kambatissa, which belongs to the Highland East Cushitic
- The Kambata had a traditional administrative institution called the Hambericho
Council.
- Hadya: origins goes back to the 13th C. even earlier
- mentioned in the Kebere Negest as an Islamic State
- By about 1332, Amde-Tsion, subjugated Hadiya after defeating its ruler, Amano

99
 Contd.
The relations with Hadiya
- 13th -16th c. Hadiya's political importance was considerable with
sizable population and vast territory, yet a Tributary to the CHK
- for EG., in1445, a Hadiya king called Mahiqo rebelled against
Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) and was consequently replaced by
his uncle Barno.
- To stabilize the situation, Zara-Yaqob made a political marriage.
Princess Elleni ( daughter of Mohamed), who became an important
historical figure, married to Emperor Zaara­Yaqob.
- Another Hadiya leader, Garad Aze refused to pay tribute to Emperor
Sartsa-Dengel (r.1563-98), but was suppressed in 1568/9
- After the wars of Imam Ahmed and the Oromo population
movement relations interrupted until Hadiya was incorporated
into the Imperial state in the late 19th C.
- the Hadiya language belongs to the Highland East Cushitic family and
their languages are intelligible to members of these ethnic groups.
100
 States in Central and South Central Parts Sidama , Gedeo, Konso
Sidama
- Historically, the Sidama have been living in the southern parts of Ethiopia
occupying lowlands of about 1500 m a.s.l in the Great East Africa Rift Valley that
cut through Lakes Hawasa and Abaya the eastern Sidama highlands of
Arbegoha, Bansa
- Economy, Important cash crops - Enset , coffee and recently Chat
- Political system-: indigenous system of governance led by the Mote (king).
- The Mote exercised political and administrative authority in consultation with
the council of elders called Songo.
- The cultural and ritual leader in Sidama society was the Woma cf. Qallu
- Sidama society was divided into generation-sets called Luwa. The system had
five grades each lasting for eight years. These are Darara, Fullassa, Hirbora,
Wawassa and Mogissa.
- Gedeo: According to the dominant tradition the Gedeo descended from
Daraso, who was the older brother of Gujo (father of Guji Oromo).
- Divided into clans
- The Gedeo had a culture a traditional governance system ( called Baa/le) that
worked with age classes and ranking.
- had seven grades with a I0-year period each creating a 70- year cycle.
101
- economy was based on the cultivation of enset.
 Contd.
Konso
- The Konso are one of the ancient peoples in Ethiopia and the Horn who spoke
affa Konso (Konso language)
- The literal meaning of Konso is a "heavily forested hill/ area."
- Konso attracted the attention of local and international researchers interested in
human evolution, as it is one of the earliest human settlement sites in the
world.
- Agriculture was and remains to be the major economic activity of the Konso.
- Konso's economy also depended on bee keeping and crafts work
- Farmers combined crop production with cattle breeding.
- they adopted soil conservation techniques notably the construction of
terraces, which proved helpful to convert rugged and hilly areas into permanent
cultivation.

5.5.4. Peoples and States in Southwestern Part

Wolayta, Kafa , Yem, Garno, Dawuro, Ari
5.5.5. Peoples and States in the West
Berta, Gumuz , Anywa, Nuer , Majang, The Kunama
102
5.6. The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint

103
 5.6. The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint
5.6.1.The Gondarine Period
- Prior to Gonder: Emperor Sartsa-Dengle established royal camp at Enfranz in
1571. Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near Gondar in such
places as Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz and Azazo.
- A major milestone- Gondar was founded in 1636 when Fasiledas established his
political seat there. With that the Gonderine period started (The period of
Gondar began from the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle)
- Glorious Time of Gonder: during the reigns of its first three successive
emperors; Fasiledas (r.1632-67), Yohannes I (r.1667-82) and Iyasu I (r.1682-
1706).
- They were also reformers: - Among the major reforms during these periods
were the
- restoration of Orthodox Church as state religion,
- the establishment of a royal prison at Amba Wahni to solve problem
of power rivalry.
- Emperor Yohannes I and his council established a separate quarter for
Muslims at Addis Alem.
- His successor, Iyasu I ( The Great), reformed land tenure system,
introduced a system of land measurement in Begemder, taxes, and 104
customs, and revised the Fetha Negest (the civil code).
 contd

- The Onset of Byzantine Politics: The assassination of Iyasu the

Great in 1706 by a faction under the leadership of his own son, Tekle­
Haymanot, ushered in political instability in Gondar involving
intrigues and poisoning of reigning monarchs.
- Tekle-Haymanot was crowned in 1706 before the death of his
father and was in turn assassinated by Tewoflos in 1708. Tewoflos
was again killed in 1711 by Yostos, who was also poisoned in 1717
and replaced by Dawit III, who himself was poisoned and replaced
by Bakafa in 1721.
- Bakafa tried to restore stability with his wife Etege Mentewab
until he was incapacitated in 1728.
- The Gondarine Period also witnessed increased involvement of
the Oromo in the Imeperial politics and the army as will be
discussed shortly.

105
 contd

 The Quaregnoch Hegemony: From 1728 to 1768, Etege Mentewab

together with her brother Ras-Bitwaded Walda Le'ul (1732-1767) dominated
the Gondarine court politics. It is this period we call the Q/H.

- Walda Le'ul was influential during the reigns of Iyasu II (1730-55) and lyoas
(1755-69) , son and grandson of Mentwab.
- Following W/Leuel’s death in 1767, Etege Mentewab was challenged by
Wubit Amito, her daughter-in-law from Wollo. Yeju based Oromo noblity.
- To counter the growing power of the Wollo Oromo in the royal court,
Mentewab sought the alliance of Ras Mika'el Sehul of Tigray who was
politically astute and militarily powerful.
- Mika'el Sehul came to Gonde in 1767 and succeeded in stabilizing the
situation but refused to return to Tigray
- then lyoas was killed and Ras Mika'el enthroned an old man Yohannes II in
his place
- Soon Ras Mika'el killed Yohannes II and put his son Takla­Haymanot II (1769-
77) on power. T
- This marked the beginning of the period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855).
106
 B.Achievements of the Gondarine Period

-Some writers to describe Gondarine period as a period of Ethiopian Renaissance ( owing

to he cultural achievements of the period ) . Is that Justifiable???
- Gondar became the center of state administration, learning, commerce, education, art,
and crafts for more than two centuries.
- The first three kings were successful not only in political affairs but for their marked
success in a range of fields.
- Gondar to repeated the splendors of Aksum and Lalibela.
- Advances in architecture: for about one hundred fifty years, Ethiopian kings built
significant secular buildings like castles, bridges, residences, bath, library, towers,
fortifications and churches of various size and shapes.
- In the city's compound, an impressive building known as Fasil Gemb, ( Alaqso Fasi
Gebi) there are different palaces corresponding to Emperor Fasiledas, Yohannes I,
Iyasu I, Dawit III, Bakafa and Regent Queen Mentewab.
- Reached at its pick during the reign of Fasileds the Gondarine style of architecture
may have started during the Reign of Atse Sarsa Dengel at about 1586, as could be
seen from his palace at Guzara near Enfranz.
- Not only castles, but the building of bridges are said to be predate the reign of
Fasiledas. Emperor Sartsa-Dengel is said to have built a very fine bridge near his
palace at Guzara, and Emperor Susenyos likewise erected a bridge over Blue Nile at
Alata.
107
 contd

Painting:
- this period is known as for the production of a wealth of religious paintings on
manuscripts and on wood, ornaments, weapons and other accessories.
- The churches built by Queen Mentwab were known for their beautiful paintings, cross
and art works.
- Literature: the Imperial and provincial scriptoria produced a great number of
manuscripts. Besides the Gospels, the Miracles of Mary, the Lives of Ethiopian Saints
and the Litanies, many other kinds of illuminated manuscripts were also produced.
- Gondar is also known for its traditional medicine, music and poetry

- Trade and Urbanization: Gondar was a commercial center that connected long distance
trade routes of the southern region with Massawa and Metemma in the Ethio-Sudan
border.
- Gold and salt were used as medium of exchange.
- Daily markets were commonly held in the city.
- the city became residences of foreign communities such as Indians, Greeks and
Armenians.
- The city’s population estimated 60,000-70,000
- the city served as the center of Ethiopian Orthodox Church until the middle of 19 th c.
- Many of the Orthodox churches which served as education centers, known for their
excellence in teaching aqwaqwam, liturgical chanting were centered at Gondar. 108
 5.6.2. The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)

- Zemene-Mesafint : refers to the period when actual political

power was in the hands of different regional lords, while the
monarchs were figureheads, puppets…
- The period lasted from the time Ras Michael Sehul’s
"assassination" of king Iyoas in 1769 to 1855, when Kasa Hailu
was crowned as Tewodros II

- Ras Mika'el 1767-1769n wads the first king-maker and the

dominant Ras Bitwoded
- During his time as the dominant in Gonder, he was highhanded
and the other regional lords turned his enemies.
- His measures made him highly unpopular a coalitions of lords of
Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta and Wollo fought and defeated him at the
battle of Sarba-Kussa in 1771.

109
 Contd.
- The main political regions competing for power and overlordship
during the Z/M were lords of Tigray, Semen, Dembiya, Begemedir,
Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam and Shewa.
- The "Yejju dynasty" was the leading power contender during the
Zemen-Mesafint with a new center at Debre-tabor. Ali Gwangul
(Ali I or Ali Teleq) was considered as the founder of "Yejju
dynasty" in 1786.
- Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso (r.1803-1825)
- who founded Debre Tabor as Centyer of Yeju rule
- There was fierce power struggle among the lords of those regions.
- For Eg. Gugsa was under pressure form Ras Walde-Silassie of
Enderta and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of Agame.
- In 1826, Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825-8), defeated Hayle-
Mariam Gebre of Simen.
- Dej. Maru of Dambiya was also killed at the battle of Koso-Ber in
1827.
110
 Features of the period of Zemene Mesafint

 absence of effective central government;

 the growing power and influence of the regional warlords;
 the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern
Ethiopia until Ali II (Ali JR)was defeated at the battle of Ayshal in
1853 by Kassa Hailu- the future Tewodros II
 rivarly and competition among regional lords to assume the
position of king-maker
who was the king maker?

 fragile coalitions to advance political interests; alliance and

allegiances were not ethnic based
 the Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional
role of unifying the state due to doctrinal disputes;
 rather disrupted by doctrinaire divisions
 Revival of foreign contacts that ended the "closed-door" policy.
111
 UNIT SIX
INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND
EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF ETHIOPIA
AND THE HORN, 1800-1941

This unit surveys the history of the region from the early 19 th century to
1941.

112
 Contd.
6.1.The Nature of Interactions among Peoples and States of Ethiopia
and the Horn
-At the beginning of the 19th C., many autonomous and semi-
autonomous peoples and states existed in Ethiopia and the Horn.
- This section deals with the history of these peoples and states in the
period under consideration.
6.1.1.Peoples and States in South-Central, Southwestern, and
Western Ethiopia
A. South-Central: Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata and Gurage:- were
autonomous and semi­- autonomous (Self – governing ) during this
period
- Economically, they depended largely on agriculture.
- local trade and long distance trade flourished
- Trade routes that connected the interior with the coast passed
through these territories.
113
 Contd.
- Among these, the Gurageland was an important market center
and political entity.
- Important trade centers such as Soddo and Aymallel-were
located in the Gurageland.
- The Gurage had their own political organization and their leaders
held the titles of Abegaz or Azmatch who combined political and
military authority

- In the second half of the nineteenth century, Qabena emerged

as a strong political entity.

- It became a center of Muslim revivalist movement to the

northeast of the Gibe River stirred by Muslim refugees from
Wollo and possible connection with Mahdist Sudan
114
 B.The Gibe States: Gibe Monarchies
-Towards the beginning of the 19th c, several monarchical states (motumma)
emerged among the Mecha Oromo at the expense of the Gada system.
- Many factors responsible for this transformation and decline of the gada
1. war leaders of the Gadaa system (Abba-Dula) and powerful individuals
usurped the power of the Gada government.
2. Abba-dula accumulated wealth from the control long distance trade and
leadership hereditary
§ This development especially took place among the Oromo around Gibe, where
the following five monarchical emerged.
1) Limmu-Enarya: was the earliest of the Gibe states.
- founded through the incorporation of Enarya.
- Initially, Abbaa Dulas of Limmu like Tesso fought and defeated the rulers of
Enarya
- Founder was Bofoo/Abba Gomol (1800-1825) who established Limmu-Enarya.
- Bofo abdicated power in favor of his son, lbsa/Abba Bagiboo (1825-61).
- The Kingdom reached the height of its power during lbsa's reign, when he
incorporated areas including Hagalo, Badi-Folla etc.
- lbsa was later succeeded by Abba Bulgu (I 861-1883).
115
 Gumma, Gomma, Jimma
2)Gumma: Jilcha killed began state formation and succeeded by his son
Oncho (1810-1830) who was in turn followed by Jawwe (1840 1854).
3) Gomma: formed by Abba Bokee (1800-1829) who was succeeded by
his son Abba Manoo (1829-1840)
- converted to Islam by Muslim Ulama/scholars.
iv. Jimma: Towards the late 18th c, Makahore emerged as an influential
female figure among the Sadacha Mecha Oromo of Jimma.
- One of the Abba Dulas, Ose Kobi (Abba Faro) was elected as a
hereditary ruler .
- Dangila (Abba Magal) who enlarged the domain.
- The process of state formation was completed by Sanna/Abba Jifar I
(r.1830-55) who formed Jimma Kingdom and left a consolidated.,
state to his successors- Abba Rebu (1855-59), Abba Boqa (1859-
1861/) Abba Gomol 1861- 75
- Abba Jifar II (c. r.1875-1934) was the most famous of the Jimma
Kings
- Apart from agriculture and trade, the kingdom's economy depended 116
 5. Gera:
- was the last of the Gibe kingdoms to be formed.
- The process of state formation in Gera was completed during the
reign of Tullu Gunji (r.1835-38), a successful war leader who made
himself king.
- Abba Rago I (r.1838-48) succeeded Tullu Gunji
- peak of power under Abba Magal who had been converted to Islam.
- As with other Gibe states, Gera attracted Muslim missionaries to
preach Islam.
The Leqa States
- Like in the Gibe region, several monarchical kingdoms evolved
among the Mecha Oromo of Wallagga.
- The Process was that a number of Abba Dulas declared themselves
Moti (king) by controlling profitable trade routes and large
territories west of the Gibe.
- Among these, the Leqa states were the prominent ones.
117
(Leqa-Naqamte, Leqa-Qellam and DU
 Contd.
1. Leqa-Naqamte
- founded by Bakare Godana in 1840
- reached its height under Moroda and his son Kumsa.
- Kumsa was able to establish strong monarchical state rich in trade
and agriculture.
- Moti Kumsa (later Dejazrnach Gebre-Egzi'abiher) was known for
promoting handcraft work, gold washing, coffee planting and
game reserves/hunting.
- The Leqa-Naqamte rulers instituted a new administrative structure
and judicial hierarchy that replaced the Gadaa system known as
qoro system (sirna abba-qoro)
2. Leqa-Qellam: was located in southwestern Wallagga.
- It was founded by Tullu and became powerful under his son, Jote
Tulu
- centered at Gidami and controlling the areas around Sayyo-Dambi
Dolo.
118
 3. Du:
- the Turne clan leader Chali Shono (also known as Abba Bor) set
up the well­consolidated state of Ilu-Abba Bor in the early
nineteenth century.
- It was one of the prosperous states in the region.

- These Oromo monarchies had systems of governance &

state structure with officials like Abba Gurmu (next person to
the king), Abba Mizan (treasurer ) Abba Qoro (district governor),
Abba Ganda (village chief),, Abba Busi (tax head), Abba Jiga

- Contrary to the Gadaa values that did not levy any kind of
taxation, under monarchical systems farmers were forced to pay
crop tax measured by traditional instruments called buchano
(about 15 kilograms) and later guboo (25 kilograms) on each
crop. 119
 Nilotic Sheikdoms
§ Early 19th C., the Sheikhdoms of Assosa or Aqoldi, Bela Shangul and
Khomosha were established to the south of Abbay
§ the Sheikhdom of Guba emerged to the north of the same river in the western
edge of Gojjam.
§ Arabic-speaking Sudanese mercantilists over Berta and Gumuz inhabitants.
Played a significant role in this process
§ Muslim leaders of Sudanese origin who considered themselves as 'Watawit‘
were founders.
§ In fact the term Watawit refers to Arabized Berta people who had entered and
settled in Benishangul as traders and Islamic religious teachers in the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
§ Their economic bases were agriculture, gold mining and frontier trade.
§ Among these sheikhdoms, Asosa got preeminence under Sheikh Khojale al
Hasan.
§ While Bela/Beni­Shangul became famous under Abd al Rahman Khojale,
§ Khomosha reached its zenith under Khojale Muhammad Wad Mahmud.
- The influence of Islam from the Sudan and cross border trade was the main
reasons for the rise of these states.
- The rich gold of the region also attracted foreign powers like the Egyptians and
120
Mahdists who attempted to control the sheikdoms at different times.
-, --

GOJJAM
Dambya District
,oox: Town
n

3J

121
 6.1.2. Trade and Trade Routes
In the 19th C. trade routes that linked southwestern Ethiopia to the coast
flourished
§ This was partly because of the revival of external trade in the Red Sea region.
§ These growth of trade became one means of maintaining strong relations
across peoples of different areas and backgrounds.
§ During this period, two main trade lines linked various territories of Ethiopia
and the Horn.
1) the route that originated from Bonga, the capital of Kafa Kingdom, linked
peoples and states of the southwestern Ethiopia with the northern part of the
Ethiopian region.
- The main market centers along this line were Bonga, Hirmata (in Jirnma), Saqa
(in Limmu), Billo (in Leqa-Naqamte), Asandabo (in Guduru), Basso-Yajube (in
Gojjam), Yifag and Darita (in Begemider) and Gondar.
- From Gondar, one line bifurcated to westward through Chilga to Matamma-
Qallabat (Gallabat) taking commodities to be sold to Sudanese merchants
called Jallaba.
- The other route passed through Adwa, Asmara and entered Massawa
- Still another split at Basso to move via Ancharro and Dawwe in Wollo and
Awusa in Afar to Tajura, Obbok and Rahe'ita in Djibouti.
122
 Contd.
2) The second major trade route also began from Bonga
- passed through Hirmata to Agabja, ­Andode-Toli to Soddo in
southwest Shewa then to Rogge near Yerer. T
- Then, the line passed through the major centers of Aliyu Amba
or Abdul Rasul in northern Shewa and ran eastward to Harar.
- From Harar, the route branched into Zeila and Berbera, and then
to the most important commercial centers in Somalia.
- Along this route Ethiopian products were mostly reached to the
Middle East.
- items of export include:
- gold, ivory, rhinoceros horn, skins, civet, musk, honey, wax,
coffee, various spices and slaves.
- Slaves were either raided or bought from different parts of
Ethiopia and export d to Arabia, Persia and India.
- Imports were : mirrors and ironware
123
 Medium of Excahnge
§ were salt bars (amole), iron bars, wines, cowries' shells, beads, pieces of cotton
cloth (abjjadi),
§ And Maria Theresa Thalers (MTT) . It was a coin introduced from Austria to the
Horn of African region at the end of the 18th C.
§ Amole - dominant in internal trade and source of of wealth.
§ It was mined in the Afar plains bordering eastern Tigray where it was also suitably
shaped for transportation. Then, it was transported from the region to the
highlands through Adwa, Gondar, and to south and southwestern parts of the
region.
§ The other route took salt from eastern Tigray to south Wollo and Shewa.
§ The town of Mekelle prospered as the salt was cut in and distributed to the
highlands from the area under the supervision of the governor of Enderta with
the title of Balgada, who collected the tributes
- Diverse peoples of different ethnic and religious background were involved in the
trade. However, Muslim merchants were the most dominant that traveled from
interior to the coast.
- Among these were northern Muslim merchants (Jabarti) and Muslim Oromo
merchants of southwestern region known as Afqala.
- Similarly, the Argoba from the Kingdom of Shewa were active merchants in the
trade between Harar and the northern Somali coast. 124
 6.2. The Making of Modern Ethiopian State
Context: The Closing Years of Zemene Mesafint
Central theme = imperial power declined during the Zermene- Mesafint
- Zemene-Mesafint (Era of the Lords”) was a period in Ethiopia
history that stretched from 1769 – 1855.
- endless (recurring) civil wars emanated from rivalry and struggle
for power and territory;
- regionalism was rampant ; overshadowing central authority;
-fragmentation in administration and the army.
-fragmentation of revenue. Rasses and Dej. of the regions kept
revenue for themselves.
-The “king of kings” at Gonder were puppets and tools of the most
powerful lord, that is, the king maker, or the Gurdian or the Ras
Bitwaded (favorite Duke) = the highest title below the king assumed
by a successful lord
-The Werra – Sheh and their predecessor Ras Bitwodeds ruled not in their own names, but
indirectly in the name of the puppet king of kings at Gonder.
-The church ceased to be a unifying institution as it used to be. division over the nature125of
Christ (Soset Ledet versus Hulet Ledet) was the underlying reason.
 End of the Z/ Mesafint and Rise to power

§ The rise of Kasa Hailu of Quara ( later became Emperor Tewodros

II) to the imperial throne in 1855 brought and end to Z/M.
§ Kassa’s background is essential for better understanding of the
later Tewodros II.
§ was Born at about 1820 in the district of Qwara.
§Kassa Hailu was the son of Dej. Hailu Wolde Giorgis and Weyzero
Atetegebe.
§ was a member of the Balabats of Quara on his father’s side,
although there are reports of a Kosso-vendor parentage on his
maternal line.
§ attended church education at the convent of Chunker for a
considerable time.

126
 Political career
- Kasa Hailu started his career by assisting his half-brother, Dej. Kinfu defeating the
Egyptians at Wad Kaltabu (in present-day eastern Sudan) in 1837.
- As he acquired military and political strength and experiences, he started mobilizing his
own army in the area and fought battles in his own right in defense of Eth frontiers.
- In 1848, Kasa fought against the Egyptians at a place called Dabarki (again in present
Sudan).
- His army demonstarted extraordinary courage, Kasa's forces lost the battle owing to the
Egyptians' superior military organization, discipline, and better arms.
- Kasa drew lessons pertaining to the importance of a modem army and descipline.
- Kasa's fame was spreading in the region and became a major concern to the Warra-Sheh
(Yejju) ruling house.
- As a result, they decided to pacify Kasa through marriage arrangement and given the
hand of Tewabech ( not Mentwab ) , the daughter of Ras Ali II
- He was also appointed the governor of Quara.
- However, Kasa felt that he was not well treated by Ras Ali and his mother, Etege Menen,
and resumed his Shiftnet.
- In addition to his well known natural qualities of “faithfulness” and “ truthfulness”
[Merid] other enduring virtues were “simplicity and disdain for pomp” - qualities he
developed in his Shifta days.
- It is reported that he lived the life of his followers. Equally praiseworthy was his sense of social
justice, or “Robin Hood character” [Bahru]. For example he used to distribute robbed money to
127
peasants of his locality.
Series of battles =
Tewodros’s dream for the imperial crown came true only after eliminating and
subduing the contemporary threats and impediments
- Kasa defeated Dejjach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam at Gur Aruba on
November 27, 1852
-Birru Aligaz, Aben, Yazew and Belew, the four dejjazrnachs sent by
Ras Ali, at Taqusa (Gorgora Bichen) on April 12, 1853;
- Ras Ali himself defeated at Ayshal on 29 June 1853- Important in
that this marked the end of Wara Sheh Hegemony.
 Finally, the remaining obstacle in the north who could possibly
hold back Kassa from the imperial throne was Wube Hailemariam
of Semien and Tigray.
 On 8 February 1855, at the battle of Deresge, to the northwest of
Gondar, Kassa defeated Ras Wube.
 Without much ado on 11 February1855, in the same church Wube
constructed for his anticipated coronation and in the hands of the
same Abun (Abuna Salama) he brought for his coronation , Kassa 128
 Why the Throne name Tewodros ? Millenarianism
- There was a widely circulating millenarian belief in Ethiopia even
before the Zemene Mesafint Millenarianism = Messianic belief –
- It refers to the expectation of the savor who is believe to set
free people and lead in righteousness and restore order.
§ In Arabic Moslem Middle East there was the expectation of 12th
Imam, the coming of a Mahadi
§ In Ethiopia there was a prophecy incorporated on a small book
named |Fekare Iyasus - was composed of Mathew 24:3,
Revelation to John and local traditions
§ The central idea is bout the coming of a savor by the name
Tewodros who is suppose to restore peace and order.
§ Many rose claiming to be the anticipated Tewodros during the
Z/M and even before.
§ As a part of this society there is no doubt that Kassa Hailu knew
about this millenarianism belief. Thus the throne name Tewodros
II was used by Kassa Hailu to get legitimacy and acceptance on129
 Unification and Reforms

- Two of the most important political entities in the last days of the Zemene Mesafint, Wallo
and Shoa were still out of the imperial Orbit.
The Wallo campaign started in March 1885, just the next month after his coronation. It was
a protracted campaign from March up to September.
- Only after he captured Magdala, 12 September1855, Tewodros terminated the Wallo
campaign without effectively pacifying it.
- In Wallo Tewodros encountered a fierce resistance to which he reacted by a ruthless
policy of terror expressed by several amputation of limbs and arms, and plundering.
- The question of Shoa was settled later on November 19, 1855 at the battle of Bereket. Of
course, Hailemelekot,negus of Shoa, died in the course of the campaign before he met
Tewodros at a battle field.
- Menilik, son of Hailemelekot, suspected as center of any future Shoan resistance, made
captive at Bereket and taken to Magdala where he stayed for the coming ten years.
- It was only in 1865 Menilik escaped from Meqdala. Mered Azmach Hailemichael,
H/Melekot’s brother, appointed as governor of Shoa and Tewodros’s vassal.
- The Shoan campaign was thus the height of Tewodros’s success and perhaps the last of
his triumphant campaigns over his rivals and contenders.

130
 Reforms and Modernization
- He wanted to create a strong central government by appointing individuals (both
hereditary and non-hereditary- Hailemichael and Kassa Subagadis (in Gojjam and
Magdala that Tewodros appointed his two trusted followers and brave commanders.
- ARMY : concentrated on Organization, discipline and Cannon – making.
- Regarding organization, Tewodros attempted to form a united national army under one
supreme commander (himself) by replacing the regional armies which were loyal to their
respective lords.
- He also tried to make this national army a salaried one – paid by the state
- introduced a new hierarchy of command much of which is still in use in the Ethiopian
army. The military title, Yaser – Aleqa (commander of 10), Ya Hamsa – Aleqa (commander
of 50), Yashi – Aleqa (commander of the thousand) are said to be his contributions.
- Cannon Making:
- The Debariqi Experience of 1848
- Samuel Gobat, the Angelican Bishop of Jerusalem in 1855 sent a group of missionary
craftsmen from Basle – Switzerland to Ethiopia.
- This missionaries, as one writer put it “came to Ethiopia to teach the Gosple of love but
ended up gunsmiths.” Tewodros forced his guests settled at Gafat (near Debre Tabor) to
engage in cannon making.
- The final result was the production of few poorly made mortars including “Sevastopol” the
biggest of all, which did not save Tewodros from the far more superior weapons of the
British at the Erogee encounter. The Gafat venture was rather a source of estrangement
with the missionaries which in a way hastened the downfall of Tewodros. 131
 Contd.
The Church and Land Reform
- It was his reform on land and the consequent collusion with the church which
contributed significantly to Tewodros’s troubles and ultimately to his down fall.
- given the inherent character of Tewodros and his government / note that Bahru
refers to him as a jealous husband/ the church was practically precluded from
political and secular matters and made to concentrate on ecclesiastical issues.
The issue of the Temtem, adultury, polygamy, dishonesty, drunkardness were just a
few of the subjects around which the mutual accusation revolve.
- the vital question of land which embittered the clergy against Tewodros.
- in 1860 when Tewodros confiscated church lands which he believed were excess
and distributed it the tribute paying peasants.
- To exacerbate the discord further, he also reduced the number of service men in
each church to be two priests and three deacons, totally five. (Only rarely
the number was raised to seven)
- Tewodros, the Road Builder- road network to link Debre Tabor with Gondar,
Gojjarn, and Maqdela.
- Tewodros the Abolitionist- attempted to put an end to the slave trade, albeit the
method was harsh
- Tewodros the Librarian -a traditional library was established at Magdala
- Other reform attempts include banning of polygamy.
- The use of Amharic writing became more developed 132
 The end of Tewodros
- Internally, Resistance and the revival of power contenders in Gojjam, Simen, Wag
and Lasta, Shewa, Wollo, and Tigray.
- Externally, he was involved in a serious diplomatic crisis that led to the coming of
the British expeditionary force in 1868
(The denial of a timely reply to a letter Tewodros wrote to Queen Victoria of
England in October 1862 could be said the origin of discord. This was a reason
enough to frustrate and infuriate the emperor who could easily view this as
insolence.
- Tewodros reacted by imprisoning all foreign national around him. Including
Captain Cameroon, the then British consul whom Tewodros thought to be
responsible for the negligence on the part of Britain, was made to join the rest of
the prisoners in 1864.
- All diplomatic efforts to get the prisoners released, including the belated arrival of
a reply in 1865, did not work. Hormuzud Rasam, an intimate friend of Tewodros
and British envoy, was sent from the government of Great Britain. But he was put
to jail by Tewodros in April 1866.
- As a result, Expeditionary Force under Sir Robert Napier from India in 1868
- April 10, 1868, up to 8,000 Tewodros' soldiers including his general Gebriye were
defeated by the British at the battle of Erogee.
133
 on April 13, 1868 at Maqdela, Emperor Tewodros committed suicide.
 The Interregnum ( 1968- January 1872)
 Following the death of Emperor Tewodros, three contenders to
the throne emerged; namely, Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta, Kasa
Mircha of Tigray and Menilik of Shewa.
 Gobeze took state power immediately after Tewodros as Emperor
Tekle-Giorgis II (1868-71)
 Although attempts were made to create a smooth relation
between the Tekle-Giorgis and Kasa Mircha, the quest for state
power put them at loggerhead.
 (from his base Temben; ensured the submission of all other rivals in Tigray and
established his authority over a vast territory. Although initially recognized the
suzerainty of Gobezie of Last, the stock of weapons he acquired from Napier (6 cannons,
850 rifles and ammunition) made him a favorite candidate to the throne.)

 Given the political culture of the day, the outcome of the power
struggle would be decided not by a ballot box but by war, or a
military showdown.

134
 The power struggle between Gobezie and Kassa went unabated all
the way through to be settled only after the campaigns of June –
July 1871 .
 It was only wrapped at the battle of Assam on 11 July 1871 in the
victory of Kassa Mircha.
 Although Tekle Giorgis’s force far outnumbered that of Kassa
Mircha in a 5 to 1 ratio (60,000: 12,000), Napier’s weapons played
a decisive role.
 Six months later, on 21 January 1872, Kassa Mircha of Tembien
was crowned as “King of Kings Yohannis IV” of Ethiopia.

135
 Yohannis IV- Policies
 Internally, he embarked on a state building project with an
approach that differed from that of Tewodros.
 Yohannes IV (1872-1889) attempted to introduce a decentralized
system of administration, permitting regional rulers to exercise
some degree of autonomy. While Tewodros (Tewodros’s
fundamental policy error was embedded in his declaration of “
አገር በጄ” /everything mine/ from the out set. )
 A good example of this was his recognition of Menilek as Negus
of Shewa in 1878 by the Liche agreement and Ras Adal Tesema
of Gojjam as Negus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam and Kafa in
1881.
 Yohannis succeeded in achieving the unity of the predominantly-
Christian provinces including Wag and Lasta, Simen, Begermidr,
Amhara Saynt, Gojjam, Wollo, Shewa, and the Mereb Milash for
quite some time. 136
 .
Contd

Externally,
 Emperor Yohannis faced challenges from Egyptians, Italians, and the Mahdists
 Yohannis tried to establish friendly relations with Europe- on the basis of ‘ Christian
solidarity
 1) With Egypt: 19th C. Egyptians showed a keen interest to occupy Northeast Africa their
occupation of the Sudan in 1821,
- they moved to occupy Ethiopia on several occasions. For instance, in 1875, Mohammed
Rauf Pasha to the direction of Zeila front and the result was the occupation of the Harar
Emirate between 1875 and 1885.
- Werner Munzinger, the architect of the whole of Ismail's scheme for invasion of Ethiopia,
and central to Egyptian occupation of Bogos; led about 500 Egyptian troops through Tajura
where he and his troops were all killed by the Afars at the Battle of Odduma.
- Finally, Colonel Arendrup and Arakel Bey led another 2,000 well-armed troops through
Massawa. Emperor Yohannes IV and Ras Alula mobilized about 20,000 forces and
encountered the Egyptians at the Battle of Gundet (16 November 1875) where the
Egyptian troopswere severely defeated. Notwithstanding their setback, Egyptians again
reorganized their forces and sent their army to invade Ethiopia. However, the Ethiopian
forces again defeated them at the Battle of Gura (7-9 March, 1876).
 It is important to understand that some Europeans and Americans were in the service of
Egyptians. For instance, Werner Munzinger, was a Swiss born adventurer and former
137
French Consul in Northeast Africa. Colonel Arendrup himself was a Danish Citizen, and
 After years of protracted negotiations Yohannis signed the
Hewett /Adwa Treaty on 3 June 1884 at Adwa
 It was a treaty signed between the Emperor and the British Rear
Admiral William Hewett on behalf of Egypt.
 The objective from the vantage point of Britain was the safe
evacuation of Egyptian troops through Ethiopia who were
trapped by the Mahdists troops along the Ethio-Sudanese border.
In return, Bogos was to be restored to Ethiopia and the freely use
Massawa for the transit of goods and firearms.
 Based on the agreement, Emperor Yohannis facilitated the safe
evacuation of Egyptian troops through his territory ; and Britain
restored Bogos to Ethiopia.
 However, Britain secretly transferred Massawa to Italy in
February 1885.
 A consequence of the treaty was Mahdists' determination to
avenge Yohannis that led to the battle of Metemma on 9 March 138
 Contd.
2) With Italians who occupied Massawa in 1885, filled with the
“vigor of a youth and the desperation of a late –comer,” Massawa was
only the beginning.
 Italians continued expansion to the hinterland. In August 1885 they
annexed Saati (24 kms west of Massawa) and in 1886 Wia (32 kms
to the South of Massawa).
- Ras Alula, commander of the Ethiopian forces in that region and
governor of the Mereb Melash, protested this Italian annexation and
sent an ultimatum for Italians to clear out from the two posts.
 Italians ignored this ultimatum Alula marched to Saati and attacked
the fortified Italian garrison there on Jan. 25, 1887.
-Alula could not dislodge Italians from their fortifications owing to
the lack of artillery power, and even repulsed.
-The following day, 26 January 1887 Alula’s forces, on their way
back intercepted Italian reinforcement from Massawa (about 500
soldiers) at Dogali (between Saati and Massawa) and virtually (or
wiped out) Italians. This event of 26January 1887 is remembered 139
 The Battle of Mattama
With Mahdist Sudan:
 The Hewett Treaty in part originated conflict between the Mahdist and Ethiopia that
lasted from 1885 to 1889.
 The first clash was at Kufit between Ras Alula and Uthman Digna in September 1885.
Initially, the Ethiopian force was victorious.
 In January 1887, Yohannes ordered Nigus Tekle-Haymanot of Go.ijam to repulse the
Mahdists. A year later, the Mahdists led by Abu Anja, defeated Nigus Tekle-Haimanot's
troops at Sar- Wuha in Dembia.
 In southwest Eth. direction, the Mahdist advance was checked at Gute Dilli (in Najjo-
Wallagga) by Menilek's commander Ras Gobana Dache on October 14, 1888.
 Whlie Emperor Yohannes IV was in northern Ethiopia to check the Italian advance to
Mereb Melash, he heard of the Mahdists advance up to Gondar.
 The Mahdists sacked the town in 1888 and caused a lot of destruction on churches and
monasteries, including the killing of civilians
 At this important juncture, Nigus Menilek and Nigus Tekle-Haimanot are said to have
conspired against the emperor, instead of directly facing the Mahdists that put Yohannis
what can be called a triangular tension, namely the Italians in the north, the Mahdists in
the west and northwest, and his two vassals in the center.
 In March the Emperor decided to postpone the military clash with Italians, and marched
to Metemma where he died at the otherwise victorious battle , March 9/ 1889
140
 Menilik II
 Although the Emperor had designated Mengesha Yohannes as
hei to trhe throne and successor, rivalry for power split the
monarch's camp and thus, Mengesha was unable to make a
viable bid for the imperial throne.
 As a result, the throne was assumed by Negus Menilek of
Shewa .
 Minelik was crowned emperor Neguse Negest of Ethiopia on 3
November 1889.
 Abuna Matewos, the patriarch, officiated the coronation
ceremony at the church of Entoto Maryam.
 Ras Mengesha refused to submit to Emperor Menilek. The
tension was resolved after Menilek led a campaign to force
Mengesha's submission in 1889.
 Ras Mengesha was appointed as governor of Tigray after a
temporary arrangement in which Ras Mekonnen Wolde Mikael
ruled the area for about a year. 141
 Territorial Expansion, Modernization Attempts, Adwa
-Emperor Tewodros II, Emperor Yohannes IV & others made
state building their mission; endeavored to achieve that goal.
§The most successful was Menilik of Shewa.
§ A phenomenal hallmark of the reign of Menilik was his
territorial expansion (zemecha) to the vast areas of the
south, southeast and southwest.
§Menilik’s territorial expansions to these vast areas were
not unique to him, but rather the continuation of a process
started earlier by his predecessors in the late 18th & early
19th centuries such as Sahle Selassie, his own grand father.
§ Menilik’s success was attributed to = (1.access to modern
firearms; 2. the control of resource rich areas that enabled
the emperor to build military muscle; 3. and the
determination of his generals to control trade routes , land
142
 Contd.
The process of territorial expansion by Menilik can be divided into
three phases i.e. 1) when he was king of Shewa (1865-89)
2) from 1889-96 ( up to Adwa)
3) the Post-Adwa period(1896-1900)
§ 1st stage took place from 1875 to 1889. Regions incorporated at
this stage were; the Gurage country, the Oromo kingdoms of Gibe
Valley (Jimma, Limu- Enarya, Goma,Guma & Gera)
§ At this same stage, the Tulema and eastern Mecha Oromo were
already incorporated
§ The Emirate of Harar and the Harar plateau was reduced from an
autonomous emirate to a province ruled by Ras Mekonen after
the Harari force led by Emir, Abdulahi, was defeated at the battle
of Chelenqo 6 January 1887.
§ Other regions incorporated in this phase were Illubabur (in 1889),
Arssi (in1886), most of Wallaga from 1882 – 1886.
143
 Second Stage and the Impact of the Great Famine
 2nd Stage- took place from 1889 – 1896, from Menilik’s coronation to Adwa.
 As you can see below the most astounding success and tremendous expansion
was achieved during this period
 Territories occupied include:
- Dawuro, ­Konta and Kambata in 1889 and 1890, respectively.
- From the early 1890s to 1894, Menilek's army controlled Bale, Sidama, Gamo
Gofa and Wolayta
- Menilik’s victory of June 6, 1882 at Embabo over Negus Tekle Haymanot gave
Menilik free access, in the southwest.
- After Embabo (June 6, 1882) , Leqa-Naqamte, Leqa-Qellem, and Jimma Abba Jifar submitted
to Menilek peacefully.
- Some resistance In the Gibe region, Firissa of Guma fought Menilek's army from 1889- 1901.
The imperial army also faced similar resistance from Gomma, although defeated in early 1900.

 Ras Tesemma Nadew's force incorporated Ilu Abba Bor into the imperial state.
 The “Great Famine” (Kefu Qen) 1888 – 1892 which was accompanied by cattle plague and
other natural catastrophies like drought and locust invasion severely hit northern Ethiopia.
People starved to death, and in many places the plague sapped 90% - 100% of the cattle.
- Many northerners, dislocated from their ancestral home areas enthusiastically joined the
army of Menilik desperately hoping for a better future and to start life anew.
- This infused a fresh energy to the army of Menilik heading to the south for another drive of
144
expansion.
 Third Stage
 The third Stage : of the expansion took place in the postr- Adwa
years between 1896 – 1900.
 Territorias incorporated : include; Borena, Benishangul (after the
Battle of Fadogno in 1897/98), Maji (in 1898/99), Messengo,
Gimira , among others.
 Ras Tesema Nadew also controlled Baro (Sobat) and Nasir in
Gambella around this time.
 The kingdom of Kaffa itself was subdued in 1897 after a stiff
resistance it offered.
 Menilik did not personally participate in the campaigns of this
stage as he had done in the Arsi, Wolayta and Harar .
 Most importantly, as most of areas conquered at this stage were
remote borderlands the principal motive for the expansion seems
to be defensive and protection of the core .
 The zemechas of this period were aimed at establishing a buffer
zone from imperialist forces hovering around Ethiopia’s, borders.
145
 Forceful and peaceful submissions
 Menilek's expansion to western and southwestern regions was
concluded through both forceful and peaceful submissions.
 Examples resistance a incorporation are Arsi , Wolayta and Kaffa
 Of all the campaigns Menilik before he became emperor, the most
sustained resistance was that of the Arsi Oromo.
 It took six different campaigns from 1882-6 to control this region.
Notables like Sufa Kuso, Damu Usu, Lenjiso Diga, Gosa Dilamo and
Roba Butta were leaders.
 The Arsi Oromo even defeated Menilek's force at Dodota &
Qalata.
 Later, with intelligence service of local supporters, Ras Darge
Sahile-Selassie's force defeated the Arsi Oromo at the battle of
Azule on 6 September 1886.
 The battle of Azule was followed by what is known as the Anole
incident of 1887, which inflicted heavy damage on the Arsi.
 [There is disagreement among historians on the veracity of the
incident and on whether there is a need to highlight it, as the 146
 Contd.
 In the campaign to Wolayta, Menilek and his Generals such as Ras
Mikael of Wallo, Fitawurari Gebeyehu Gumm, Liqe Mekwas Abate
Buayalew, Dejjach Balcha Safo, Ras Wolde-Giorgis, and Abba Jifar II
of Jimma participated.
 Wolayta's resistance was led by Kawo (King) Tona against
Menilek's defeated in 1894 in which large number of people lost
their lives.
 The process of the incorporation of Kafa paralleled the Wolayta
experience in terms of human cost.
 In 1897, the king of Kafa, Tato Gaki Sherocho, fought and lost to
Menilek's army led by Ras Wolde Giorgis.
 In the east, Menilek's commander, Dejjach Wolde-Gabra'el, fought
against the Itu in 1886 and incorporated Chercher.
 A year later, Dej. Mekonnen's army marched to Harar. The of Emir
Abdullahi (r.1885-1887) of the Harari and Bakar Ware of the Eastern
Oromo were defeated at Chalanqo on 6 January 1887.
 followed by the appointment of Ras Makonnen Welde Mikael as147
 Contd.
There were two alternative patterns of treatment of the
conquered people based up on their reaction to the
conquest. Regions and
local rulers who submitted peacefully were spared from
ravage and destruction of Menili’s army.
The fundamental condition for submission was
agreement to pay tribute ( qurt geber) and showing
unwavering allegiance to Menilik under all
circumstances.
This may go to the extent of providing assistance up on
request. For example, Abba Jifar of Jimma provided an
invaluable support for Menilik in the conquest of Kaffa
and Wolayta.
148
 Consequences of the Zemechas
 In general the zemachas of enlarged Ethiopia’s size three – fold
(according to C. Mcclellan) or simply more than two – fold (according
to H. Marcus)
 incorporating heterogeneous communities added to the diversity.
 small garrison towns were established in different regions that
gradually evolved to become the present towns of Goba, Gore,
Arero, Dirri Teltale, Liban, Guguma Fesha Genet and many others.
- Strategic considerations counted most in selecting these garrison
sites. Most of them were plateau – bound and located at a central
position to supervise many communities at a time.
 the process led to the establishment of a centralized and unitary
state ; Eventually by abolishing regional autonomies in the early
decades of the 20th century.
 EG. Wollo (after the battle of Segele in 1916 when Nigus Mika'el was
defeated), Begemedir (after the battle of Anchim at which Ras Gugsa
Wole was defeated in 1930), Gojjam in 1932 and Jimma in 1933
149
were reduced to provinces by Teferi-Mekonnen (Haile-Sillassie I).
 The Wuchale Treaty and the Battle of Adwa
 Menelik's relations with Italy reached its climax with the signing of the Wuchale
Treaty.
 It was drafted by Count Pietro Antonelli and signed on 2 May 1889, at Wuchale,
Wollo between Emperor Menilek II of Ethiopia and Antonelli on behalf of Prime
Minister Crispi
 has twenty articles written both in Amharic and Italian languages (two versions)
 When Ras Mokonnon visited Italy for ratification, Italians made him sign an
additional convention, which introduced the phrase "effective occupation" of
Italy legitmazing the territories they occupied after the treaty in the Mereb
area.
 Based on the Italian version of Article XVII, Italy announced that all foreign
powers had to deal with Ethiopia only through Italy.
 European powers gave recognition to this Italian claim except Russia.
 In January 1890, the Italian government formally declared Eritrea as its colony.
 Ultimately Italian efforts to colonize Ethiopia through a combination of tricky
treaties, and subversive methods failed.
 This was because Menilik publicly abrogated the Wuchale Treaty in February
1893
 and Tigrian lords including Ras Mangasha Yohannes, Ras Sebhat Aragawi and
Dajjach Hagos Tafari, who the Italians were hoping to use as a ploy, turned150 to
fight against the Italians collaborating with Emperor Menilek.
 Adwa
 Finally the disagreement over the Wuchale Treaty and Italian
determination to occupy Ethiopia led to the battle of Adwa .
 Following Emperor Menilek's famous war mobilization,
“› Ñ` ¾T >ÁÖ ó GÃT • ƒ ¾T >K¨ <Ø Ö Lƒ Ó² =› wN ?` ¾¨ c ’ M” ” vI ` › Mö S Ø …M ’ @ U
ÁÑ_ ” Ÿwƒ T Kp ¾c ¨ <” S É ŸU › Ê e Ÿ› G<” ´ U wK¨ < ÅÓV ÁK𠝔 Åõ Mð M S _ ƒ
Ãq õ ` ËS ` :: › G<” Ó” uÓ² =› wH@` ` ǃ ’ ƒ › Ñ_ ” › d Mô › Mc Ö ¨ <U :: ÁÑ_ c ¨ < " G<”
k ÅU ¾uÅMG<I › ÃS e K˜ U › ” } U e Ÿ› G<” › Lc k ¾U ¤ ˜ U Ñ<Muƒ ÁKI uÑ<Muƒ I ` ǘ
Ñ<Muƒ ¾K?KI KMÏ I KU i ƒ I KGÃT • ƒ I e ƒ M uG² ” ` ǘ ¨ e M} I ¾k [ I Ó” %E L ƒ × L—
KI › M} ¨ <I U T ` ÁU ” K² =I › T LÏ ¾K˜ U ² S ‰ÂU uØ p U ƒ ’ ¨ <“ ¾g ª c ¨ < e Ÿ Ø p U ƒ
Ÿ<K? ¨ [ ÃK< Ÿ} I LÓ˜ I :

[ Enemies have now come up on us to ruin the country and to change our religion --- our
enemies have begun the affair by advancing the digging in to the country like moles. With
the help of God I will not deliver up my country to them --- Today, you who are strong give
me your strength, and you who are weak, help me by prayer.]
 about 100,000 troops from every part of the country gathered at Wara-Illu (in today's
South Wollo).

 People marched to the front irrespective of gender, regional, and

ethnic differences to fight against the Italian aggression. 151
 Contd.
 The force led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu Gurmu defeated the Italians
at Amba-Alage and forced them to retreat to Mekelle.
 In January 1896, under the leadership of Ras Mekonnen, the
Ethiopian forces defeated Italians at Mekelle
 and laid a siege from7-21 January 1896.
 The siege that denied them of access to a water well, to supplies
and reinforcements. The strategy was called the "siege of
Mekelle" and was designed by Empress Taytu.
 After some negotiations, the besieged Italian troops were set free
and joined their compatriots at Adwa.
 By mid February the Italian colonial forces led by Barateri
advanced to Adwa and controlled a strategic area at Sawriya
 He decided to launch a surprise attack. The Ethiopian army was
encamped around the town.

152
 Adwa
 A month after Mekelle, Ethiopian forces led by Emperor Menilek,
Empress Taiytu and other war generals such as Ras Mikael, Ras
Makonnen, Ras Alula, Ras Mangasha and Negus Tekle-Haymanot
encountered the Italians at Adwa.
 On the night of 29 February, the Italians made a vigorous advance
under the cover of the dark, planning to surprise the Ethiopians in
the morning while they were attending the Sunday church service.
 On 1 March 1896, Sunday morning, when most of the troops in the
Ethiopian camp were still asleep; Menilik& Taytu were attending
services at St. George church, a courier reported the news of Italian
attack.
 By midday of 1 March 1896, the battle of Adwa was practically over.
Italy suffered from a humiliating defeat in the hands of a black
army.
At this battle, about 8,000 Italian fighters were killed, 1,500 wounded
and 3,000 were captured. On the Ethiopian side, about 4,000-6,000
troops are said to have been killed. 153
 contd
 Consequently, Italy recognized the independence of
Ethiopia by the treaty of Addis Ababa that was signed on
October 26, 1896.
 A number of powers of the time (including Italy, France,
Britain, Russia, the United States, Germany, Belgium,
Turkey, and others) also recognized the independence of
Ethiopia.
 After Adwa, different foreign countries opened their
legations at Addis Ababa. In 1897, first Italy then France
then Britain, negotiated with Menilik and signed treaties
to establish their legations in AA.
 The victory assured independence and national pride. It
has thus become a source of pride for Ethiopians, Africans
and the black race in general. 154
 Contd .

 The victory of black people over white colonizers initiated entire

Africans fighting against colonialism.
 The well-known Pan­Africanist, Marcus Garvey, inspired his
followers in his "Back to Africa" movement with the success of
Ethiopians.
 He used phrases like "Ethiopia thou land of our fathers" and
Ethiopianism became a symbol of anti-colonial movements.

 Furthermore, Emperor Menilik made boundary agreements with

the then neighboring colonial powers like French-Somaliland (the
present day Djibouti) on 20 March 1897, with British-Somaliland
(now Somaliland) on June 1897, with Anglo-Egyptian Sudan on 15
May 1902, with the Italian colony of Eritrea on IO July 1900 and
also with British East Africa (Kenya) in 1907 and Italian-Somaliland
in 1908.
 These boundary agreements shaped modern Ethiopian territorial 155
 6.3. Modernization Attempts
 The period from 1800 to 1941 also witnessed efforts to adopt
western ideas and technology by Ethiopian monarchs.
 Although several Ethiopian regional rulers were interested in
European technologies, Emperor Tewodros had relatively better
information/contact about western technologies than his
predecessors.
 He was well aware of the importance of European technologies to
transform his people and country. For this purpose, he attempted
to approach Europeans for the introduction of western science and
technologies.
 Tewodros to Victoria, 17 April 1866
ue S › w ¨ ¨ MÉ ¨ S ”ð e p Æe › U L¡ ¾Ó² =› wN ?` õ Ö <` v] Á¨ < ¾Ç©ƒ ¾c KV ”
MÏ ” Ñ<W ’ Ñe ƒ ‚ ­ É a e ÃÉ [ e Ó² =› wN ?` Ÿc ¨ < G<K< S ` Ù › Mq " ’ ÑW­ ......
¾› =ƒ Äå Á c ­ ‹ ¨ <` ’ ” “ ¯ Ó ‹ ” ” Áw\ M” Ó² =› wN ?` uc T à Áw° ^ M­ ::

 military, administrative and socio-economic reforms.

-Army= Tewodros introduced military titles, like Yasr Aleqa, Yamsa Aleqa, and Yeshi Aleqa.
- tried to organize and replace the regional armies of the Zemene-Mesafint with salaried
156
national army.
 Yohannis Modernization attempts
Emperor Yohannis IV:- Among his reforms and innovative schemes
 was the first Ethiopian monarch to appoint foreign consul who
served as his representative in London.
 He hired a French mechanic, a Hungarian gunsmith, and an
Italian construction worker to assist his modernization efforts of
the country.
 He also sent some individuals abroad for modem education. He
was also the first to introduce modern style vaccine against
smallpox replacing traditional inoculation. His reign also
witnessed extensive treatment of syphilis in several towns.
 For Menilik the post­Adwa period was marked by the est. of a
postal service and telecommunications/ the telephone-telegraph
system, the construction of railway line from Djibouti to Addis
Ababa -through a concession for 99 years won by the French Leon Chefneux in
1894 (reached the New Harar / Dire Dawa in 1902, and reached Addis only in 1917)
- the opening of a bank (the Bank of Abyssinia - 1905) and the
introduction of silver coin. 157
 Admin. Reforms of Menilik II
The Introduction of the Ministerial System:
§ the emperor introduced European style ministerial system/
Cabinet of ministers in 1907.
§ Accordingly, established 9 ministries and appointed trheir
respective minsters :
§ 1. Afanegus Nasibu Msqalo – Minister to the ministry of Justice
§ 2. Fit. Habtegiorgis Dinagde – Minister to the ministry of War
§ 3. Tsehafe Tezaz G/Sellasie W/Argay - Minister to the ministry of pen
§ 4. Negadras H/Giorgis W/Michael - Minister to the ministry commerce and Foreign Affairs
§ 5. Liqa Mekwas Katama - Minister to the ministry of interior
§ 6. Azazh Mulugeta Yegezu – Minister to the Ministry of the Imperial court
§ 7. Bajerand - Minister to the ministry Finance
§ 8. Kantiba W/Tsadiq – Minister to the ministry of Agriculture
§ 9. Qannazmach Mekonen – Minister to the ministry of public works

§ His reign also witnessed the opening of a hotel in 1907 (Etege

Hotel), a modern school (Menilek II School in 1908) and the
foundation of Russian Red Cross hospital in 1906 and Russian-run
hospital (Menilek II Hospital) in 1910.
§ Menilek faced ailment that incapacitated him especially after 1906
§ Also the death of Ras Mekonen Woldemichael

158
 Succession
 He therefore designated and eventually proclaimed Lij Iyasu as
heir to the throne,
 Ras Tesemma Nadew as regent, – in May 1909
 During his short stay in power, Lij lyasu (1913-16) introduces
several reforms such as:-
- the banning of the Quaragna system, a system that involved
chaining the applicant and defendant / debtor with creditor
until justice was settled.
- amend Leba Shay system, a customary mode of detection of
criminals and thieves.
- introduced municipal police called Ternbulle.
- introduced a policy of auditing of government accounts,
- and he tried to integrate Ethiopian Muslims into the
administration structure. His rule also witnessed the
- Introduced flourmill that functioned mechanically and private
industrial enterprises like sawmill, a grinding-mill, a tannery, a
159
soap-factory, etc.
 The Dual rule - 1916-1930
- Dual Rule was the rule of Empress Zewditu and Ras Teferi
- The Tension ( bad Chemistry)= the two rulers namely Ras Teferi
and Empress Zewditu had different views towards western
culture, different levels of education-
- Teferis’ exposure- close link with foreigners, had keen interest in
modernization by which he wanted to boost the country's image
on the international stage.
- Eg.- entry of Ethiopia into the League of Nations and his grand tour
to Europe in 1923 and 1924
- Following his coronation as Emperor Haile-Selassie I in 1930.
Reforms based on European model took place. Such as:-
- the centralization of the government, promulgation of Ethiopia's
first constitution in 1931 (despite its drawbacks), establishment of
Imperial Body Guard in 1930, with the help of Belgian military
mission and the opening of Ethiopia's first Military Academy at
Holeta with the help of a Swedish military mission in 1934. 160
 6.4. Socio-Economic Developments

6.4.1.Agriculture & Land Tenure ; 6.4.2.Slavery & Slave Trade; 6.4.3.Manufacturing

6.4.4 Urbanization
6.4.1. Agriculture and Land Tenure:-
- Rist and gult and its abolition by the proclamation of Feb. 1975
- the incorporation of the southern half of the country into the
imperial state resulted in the redefinition of access to resources in
these regions.
- The state institutionalized different forms of surplus appropriation
and mechanisms to ensure political control in the regions eg.
those peacefully submitted and those resisted.
- Regions peacefully submitted relatively enjoyed self-administration
but were subjected to pay qurt-gibir (fixed tax).
- Regions resisted were placed under the neftegna -
gabbar/gabbar-neftegna system whereby local peoples were made
to pay tribute to the neftegna- which literally means Rifel ( gun)
bearer= they are members of the northern army.
161
 Contd.
§ One effect of the institution of the neftegna-gabbar system was
the creation of classes like landlords, ballabat, gabbar and
tenants.
§ The landholders were largely government agents while the local
population was reduced into gabbar and later tenants.

§ One major factor that brought change to agricultural practices

including land tenure system was the beginning of the Qalad
system (land measurement) in the 1890s.

§ The introduction of the Qalad system affected access to

agricultural resources in diverse ways including changes to
customary rules of access to land.

§ Qalad introduced new practices in which certain social classes

gained access to land while at the same time it resulted in the
dispossession of the local peasantry in parts of the south. 162
 6.4.2.Slavery & Slave Trade
§ Slavery and slave trade had long history in Ethiopia and the Horn. Most slaves in
Ethiopia were kept as domestic slaves and some were sold to Egypt and the
Middle East and the Ottoman Empire through the Sudan, the Red Sea and the
Gulf of Aden ports.
§ slaves were required for agricultural works, in the army and as sources of revenue
through selling into slavery. Thus, several regional and local rulers enslaved
people for these purposes.
§ Slaves were traded as commodities in local and international markets.
For eg., in 1837 slave raiders captured Bilile from Guma and sold her to a German
prince, Herman Pickler Muskau at Cairo who changed her name to Mahbuba and
made her his mistress.
- Similarly, Hika (later Onesimos Nasib) was kidnapped in 1869 in Hurumu when
he was 4- years old. He was sold at Massawa, later freed by a Swedish mission,
after which he translated the Bible into Afan Oromo at Menkulu (in Eritrea).
- Aster Gano was also sold into slavery from Limmu. However, in 1886, she was
emancipated and assisted Onesimos in the translation of the Bible.
- Ethiopians rulers since Tewodros, including both Yohannis IV and Menilik II
showed some gestures to contain and check the practice of slavery, its final
abolition required hard labor and tenacity exceeding enthusiasm.
163
 Contd. into the League of Nations in
§ Ethiopia’s application for membership
1919 was rejected on the grounds that Ethiopia/as insisted by the
British, known for their abolitionist stance/ could not fulfill the
obligation of a member state as regards to slavery and slave trade.
§ She was accepted to the League only in September 1923 promising
to “make particular efforts to ensure the suppression of slavery in all
its forms and also the trading in slaves on land and sea.”
§ In 1923, Ras Teferi banned slave trade which eventually came out in
a decree in 1924 to emancipate slaves.
§ This was followed by the establishment of the Office for the
Abolition of Slavery in 1932. Freed slaves were kept under the
overall supervision of Hakim Warqineh Eshete.
§ The Italians proclaimed the abolition of slavery immediately after
their occupation of the country.
§ After liberation, the Emperor issued a new decree in 1942
abolishing any forms of slave trade and the institution of slavery
itself. 164
 6.4.3. Manufacturing

- contact with the industrialized world from the mid- nineteenth century
greatly contributed to the introduction of manufacturing technologies.
- The beginning of diplomatic relations and opening of legations in the post-
Adwa period followed by the coming of many expatriates, who either came
with the skill or became agents of the introduction of manufacturing.
- Foreign citizens from Armenia, Greece, Italy and India also brought
entrepreneurial capacity to develop manufacturing industries locally.
- Among modem manufacturing industries, Holeta Grain Mill and Massawa
Salt Processing were set up in 1896 and 1904, respectively.
- Up to 1927, about 25 factories were established in Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa,
Asmara and Massawa. These included cement factories, wood and clay
workshops, tanneries, soap and edible oil plants, ammunition factories,
breweries, tobacco processing plants and grain mills.
- Private entrepreneurs established most of them.
- Among these, Artistic Printing Press and Ambo Mineral Water plant were
established before the Italian occupation.
- After 1928, including in the short lived Italian occupation, more than 10
manufacturing industries were set up. 165
Thesis- The open air market of Ethiopia/ Africa, as opposed to the supermarket/hypermarkets/online marketing/ of the western
world, epitomizes a nation of plural societies with all diversities intact (as shown in the multiple colors of these marketers)

Oct.4/2022 @AEH 166

 Urbanization
- 1900- 1941 marked the evolution of towns stemming from political, socio-economic,
demographic and ecological factors.
- the expansion of both local and long distance trade since the early nineteenth century had
transformed old markets into towns.
- Towns located on the long-distance trade in western Ethiopia grew into big towns.
- the beginning of railway connecting Djibouti and Addis Ababa as of I 917 was followed by the
emergence of several towns such as Dire-Dawa, Adama, Mojo, Bishoftu etc
- political and religious centers in several parts of the region evolved into towns.
- Many centers that once served as "royal camps" evolved into towns and parallel to this many
towns declined with the demographic change when "royal camps" shifted to other centers.
(Eg. Entoto and Addis Ababa)
- One of the towns that grew through such process was Addis Ababa. Empress Taytu chose the
place for its hot springs, Fel-Wuha (formerly called Hora Finfinne).
- Entoto, (Dildila) as known by the local population, where Menilik and his men established
their encampment in 1881, could be said the immediate precursor of AA
- A practical step towards the foundation of Addis Ababa was taken by empress Taitu the name
A.A itself is said to be her coinage from her past memory in 1886 while Menilik was
campaigning in Harar. The hot springs (Fel Weha), frequented by the royalty and the nobility
alike even prior to 1886, were attractions enough to impress Taytu and to embark on a south
ward movement in the absence of the monarch.
- from such humble beginning the small and obscure village gradually evolved to
become an African metropolis. 167
Menilek's generals established garrisons inhabited by governors and soldiers made
 The Constitutions
The Constitutions of 1931 and 1955
- 1931- The promulgation of Ethiopia's first written constitution
- Drafted chiefly by Bajerond Tekle-Hawariat Tekle- Mariam& Modelled after the 1898 Meji
const. of Japan
- It strengthened centralization by eroding whatever influence of the nobility “it marked
their political death” ,
- to a large extent focused on consolidating H/Sellassie autocracy
- provides for a parliament to be set up, a bicameral (having two houses)
- In 1955, Haile-Selassie promulgated a new constitution, revising the 1931 constitution. --*
advisers like John Spencer as well as Tsehafe-Tizaz Wolde-Giorgis Wolde­Yohannis and
Tsehafe-Tizaz Aklilu Habte-Wold were in the drafting committee
- More than its predecessor, the 1955 revised constitution provided the basis for the
consolidation of absolutism in Ethiopia. For EG.About 36 articles of the 1955 constitution
dealt with the question of imperial succession and the emperor's privileges.
- Some Human rights provisions like those of speech and press were accompanied by
nullifying phrases like within law limits.
- This constitution introduced universal adult suffrage and elected chamber of deputies for
four years term and that of the senate six years with certain property qualification.
- However, neither the constitution nor the Parliament that it created put a limit to the
autocratic power of the emperor.
- The Emperor was the head of the three branches of government: the executive, the
legislative and the judiciary. The idea Oct.4/2022
of a constitutional
@AEH monarchy was never materialized.
168
 6.5. 3. Italian Occupation (1936-41) and the Patriotic Resistance

A) Background: The Road to war

- The coming of fascists to power in Italy, in 1922, reinvigorated Italian
colonial interest in Ethiopia. Mussolini wanted to create an empire
making Italy a first class colonial power.
- Adwa was still an open wound” that frustrated early Italian colonial
exercise,
- As early as 1925, Mussolini gave orders for military preparations
with a view to waging war against Ethiopia.
- The policy of “rapprochement” in the 1920s. Firstly, the enthusiastic
welcome to Teferi in 1924 ,at the time of their tour to Europe , may
give the impression that relations were improved.
- The peak rapprochement between the two countries was reached
with the signing of Treaty of Peace and Friendship on 2 August 1928.
meant to last for twenty years, it did not survive even ten.
- An important annex to the treaty had provided for the construction
of a road between Assab and Dessie.
169
 The Wal Wal Incident

- The Walwal Incident of 5 December 1934 provided the necessary

pretext Mussolini waiting for before striking on Ethiopia.
- Walwal was a locality well inside the Ethiopian territory. However,
Italians, taking advantage of lose Ethiopian control of the locality
and the prevailing lax administration developed interest over the
area so as to make use of the wells.
- On 5 December 1934 Italians shot on the Anglo – Ethiopian
boundary commission crossing that place and killed several
Ethiopian soldiers escorting the commission.
- After the exchange of shootings a good number of gunmen were
killed on both sides. Italians fanned this as a humiliation although
the number of Ethiopian soldier’s killed in this clash was much
higher than the Italians. Italians demanded for an official apology
and reparation.
- Ethiopian took the matter to the League of Nations instead of
acceding to those unacceptable demands. Nevertheless, the
Oct.4/2022 @AEH 170
League failed to take effective action against the offender except a
 The War
- For Mussolini the year 1935 was a time of preparation for the
Ethiopian war and clearing all likely diplomatic resistances against
his Ethiopian venture. In fact, back in 1932 Emilio De Bono, the
Italian Minister of Colonies, began a program of militarization of
the colonies in view of the impending war with Ethiopia. In 1934
Mussolini gave orders to hasten military plans for the occupation of
Ethiopia; which required huge sum of money, many trucks, tanks,
artillery, airplanes, and gas to ensure Italy’s military superiority.
The war started in the Northern Front when the Italians crossed the
Mereb River on October 3, 1935 and launched a 3- pronged attack.
- As a Result, Italian forces controlled Adigrat, Adwa and Mekelle.
- In January 1936, the Ethiopian counter- offensive marched north
through three fronts with Ras Kasa Hailu -commander of the entire
northern front
1. Ras Emiru Haile-Selassie led the western front,
2. Ras Seyum Mengesha led the central front, and
3. Ras Mulugeta Yigezu (War Minister) led the eastern front. 171
 The decisive Showdown- Temben, Amba- Aradom
- The first major reversal to the Ethiopian counter-offensive was the first
battle of Tembien,20 - 24 January. Poor coordination of Ethiopian forces
and Italian use of mustared gas enhanced Italian victory On January 24,
Ethiopian force lost the first Battle of Temben.
- The Italians scored yet another decisive victory (despite the fortress+
50,000 soldiers) at Amba-Aradom, to the south of Mekelle in which the
War Minster, Ras Mulugeta Yigezu, lost his life. (At Amba Aradom “Badoglio
destroyed both the Ethiopian will to fight and the will to live” (Sbacci).)
- At the center (in Tembien) were the combined forces of Ras Seyoum
Mengesha and Ras Kassa Hailu ( who ironically was the commander - in –
chief of the whole northern front to the dismay of Ras Mulugeta Yegezu the
then war minister and expected to assume supreme command.
- The forces of Ras Kasa and Ras Seyum were outnumbered by the Italian
troops and defeat at the Second Battle of Temben (27-29 Feb. 1936). The
Commanders Ras Kassa and Ras Seyum narrowly escaped and joined the
Emperor at Korem.
- On the western front, Ras Emeru, at the head of the forces of Gojam and Begemeder, put
strong resistance against the advancing force of
Oct.4/2022 the Italians. Thanks to Ras Emeru's better
@AEH 172
leadership, the number of death of Ethiopian soldiers was less here.
 Maichew
- A series of battles between the Ethiopian and Italian forces in the
northern Front culminated in Maychew on 31 March 1936.
- Although the Ethiopian army (especially members of the Kebur
Zebegna) under the command of the Emperor put strong
resistance against the Italians, they were not able to stop Italians
- Many Ethiopian soldiers lost their lives from ground and air
bombardment during the battle. Then the Italian forces controlled
Dessie and Addis Ababa on 4 April 1936 and 5 May 1936,
respectively.
2) The Southern Front:- Eth. Forces were better equipped and well led.
- Ras Desta Damtew (in the south) and Dejazmach Nesibu Zamanuel (in
the southeast) were leaders of the Ethiopian troops in this Front.
- Major blow - at two major battles in the Southern Front namely
Qorahe (November 1935) and Genale Dorya (12-14 January 1936).
- The Askaris (recruited from Eritrea) deserted the Italians and joined the
Ethiopian force which boosted the moral of Ras Desta's troops.
- Ras Desta continued to challenge the Italians until he was captured and
173
executed in early 1937.
 Contd.
- The number of soldiers the Italians lost during the fighting in the Southern Front was
larger than the North, which slowed their advance to the center;
- Badoglio entered Addis Ababa before Graziani even crossed Harar.
- On 2 May 1936, the Emperor fled the country and three days later ( 5 May) the Italians
entered Addis Ababa.
- Between Haile Selassie's departure and the Italian entry, Addis Ababa was beset by
burning of buildings, looting and random shooting. The major targets of the violence
were the rich, foreigners and the imperial palace.
- After their control of the capital, Marshal Badoglio immediately reported the situation to
Mussolini.
- Benito Mussolini announced to the people of Italy and the world about their control of
Ethiopia using the phrase "Ethiopia is Italian!“
- The Italians immediately merged Ethiopia with their colonies of Italian Somaliland and
Eritrea. Then, they named the combination of their colonies Italian East Africa (IEA) or
Africa Orientale Italiana (AOI).
- The newly formed Italian East Africa had six administrative regional divisions that replaced
former international boundaries. These were: 1)Eritrea (including Tigray) with its capital at
Asmara;2) Amhara (including Begemidr, Gojjam, Wollo and Northern Shewa) with its
capital at Gondar; 3)Oromo - Sidama (including Southern and Southwestern provinces)
with its capital at Jimma; 4)Eastern Ethiopia with its capital at Harar; 5)Somalia (including
Ogaden) with its capital at Mogadishu; 6)Addis Ababa (later changed to Shewa) which was
also the capital of the entire Italian East Africa.
Oct.4/2022 @AEH 174
 Colonial Administration & Patriotic Resistance
- The administration was closely controlled by Rome.
- There were 3 governors = Viceroy through out the period of Italian rule.
§ (Marshal Badoglio (till the end of May 1936), Marshal Graziani- who promised
to deliver Ethiopia to Duce Mussolini “with the Ethiopians or without them…” (till February
1937), and finally Amadeo Umberto d' Aosta (the Duke of Aosta)- said to
be fairly liberal and more pacificist administrator
- Under the governors were Commissars(administrators of districts)-
equivalent the District Commissioners in British colonies. Below the
Commissars were the Residents/Vice Residents who were in charge of
administering the residencies whom Sabacci liked to call “Little Czars” for
their oppressive and dictatorial authority.
- Generally, heavy bureaucracy and corruption characterized the Italian
administration. For instance, the last governor the Duke of Aosta
characterized 50% of his officials as inept and 25% as thieves.
- Marshal Badoglio was reported to have pocketed about 1,700,000 MTT
from the Bank of Ethiopia.

175
- Italian administrative control Contd.
was largely confined to urban areas
due to the strong patriotic resistance.
- Their legacy was also largely reflected in the towns than the rural
areas, which were actually out of Italian effective rule.
- Generally, Italian rule can be summarized in the following brief
points:
- Architecture- the Italians left an indelible mark in towns such as
Addis Ababa, Jimma, Adwa, Gondar, Desse, Harar, Asmara,
Mogadishu and others.
- Introduction of urban facilities like clean water and electricity;
- Social legacies (expansion of prostitution, adoption of European
habits-including eating and dressing styles, and adoption of Italian
words);
- The consolidation of cash economy;
- Road construction and development of motor transport;
- The sense of division, deliberately fostering ethnic and religious
tensions etc. Oct.4/2022 @AEH 176
 C. The Patriotic Resistance Movement
- Italian presence in Ethiopia was viewed by some as an “interlude” than a
colonial rule, largely because of the nation wide resistance
- The resistance can be divided into 2 phases taking the Massacre of 19
February 1937 as a landmark.
- The first phase of resistance was the continuation of the war itself. Among
the highlights of this phase was the resistance waged by three
commanders of the Southern Front, Ras Desta Damtew, Dejjach Beyene
Merid and Dejjach Gebre Maryam Gari.
- An extension of this phase was _a five pronged assault on the capital in
the summer of 1936.
- The strike involved two sons Ras Kassa ( Asfawosen and Abera Kassa); the
veteran of Adwa Dejjach Balcha Safo, Balambaras (later Ras) Abebe
Aregay, and Dej. Fikre-Mariam Yinnadu.
- However, it failed because of lack of effective means of transportation and
radio communication.
- Abune Petros, the Bishop of Wollo, who was the spirit behind the patriots
was executed and became a martyr of the resistance. The killing of the
bishop was unheard of in Ethiopia and shocked the nation, arousing177the
 The Second Phase
- The second phase starts form the Massacre of Feb 1937 to the end of the
Italian occupation in 1941.
- On 19 February 1937, two young Ethiopian patriots, Abreha Deboch and
Moges Asgedom, hurled a bomb at Graziani in the Genete-Le'ul palace
compound at Sidist Kilo, wounding him seriously and killing some others.
- This was followed by a reign of terror waged by the Black Shirts; who
chopped off heads, burnt down houses with their inhabitants, and
disemboweled thousands in Addis Ababa.
- According to Ethiopian official accounts, about 30,000 Ethiopians of
different ages, classes and sex were killed in three days' campaign.
- Special targets of the Fascist terror were educated Ethiopians (including
many members of the Black Lion Organization). The EOC also became a
target. For instance, on 21 May 1937, in the monastery of Debre Libanos
alone, 297 monks were executed.
- The elimination of the intelligentsia was to create 'the missing
generation' in Ethiopia's intellectual and political history.
- This Fascist terror marked the transition from the conventional
resistance to guerrilla warfareOct.4/2022
that could
@AEH eventually weaken the enemy
178
- Although it lacked coordination, and Relations between guerrilla groups were
characterized by parochialism and jealousy. Some guerrilla groups fought one another
than attacking the enemy.
- The resistance took place in the country in numerous forms and tenacity.
- In most provinces of the country, similar acts of resistance were observed. Eritreans too
were joining the resistance in big numbers.
- But There was no unified command structure.
- A comprehensive list and explanation on each patriot in a module such as this would not
be possible.
- To list a few prominet examples; Dejjazmach Umar Samatar, Colonel Abdisa Aga,
Dejjazmach Belay Zeleke, Dejjazmach Gebrehiwot Meshesha, Dejjazmach Abbbai Kahsay,
Zeray Dires, Colonel Jagama Kello, Woizero Sinidu Gebru, Ras Amoraw Wubneh, Lij Haile
Mariam Mamo, Ras Abebe Aregay, Dejjazmach Habte Mariam, Colonel Belay Haile-ab,
Major Matias Gemeda, Captain Yosef Nesibu, Blatta Takele Wolde-Hawaryat, Dejjach
Geresu Duki, Bekele Woya, etc.
- Women Patriots:- like Woizero Lekyelesh Beyan, whose career as a guerrilla fighter
ended in January 1941, when she was captured after an Italian air bombardment.
- Woizero Kebedech Seyoum (a daughter of Ras Seyoum Mengesha and the wife of
Deja. Abera Kasa), started her patriotic activity beforee the fall of Addis Ababa to the
Italians. When her husband was fighting in the northern front, she maintained peace and
order in the province of Salale representing her husband. 179
- Woizero Shewareged Gedle, who served as Yewest Arbegnoch, active in Addis and
 Liberation
On the other hand there were the Banda (from the Italian word ‘ band’ which means
group).They were Ethiopian collaborators who for self interest and promotion served Ita
Italians and caused a huge damage on the patriots using there knowledge of local conditions.
- A strange anomaly to cause a great dejection among the true patriots was that they came
to occupy key positions in post liberation Ethiopia.
- Despite these weaknesses, the patriots carried on a persistent resistance against fascism,
until suddenly they got external support from Britain in 1941.
- Ethiopian struggle for independence was associated with World War II,
when Italy declared war on France and Britain on 10 June 1940. Mussolini
entered the war on the side of Germany
- the internationalization of the conflict was a good opportunity for H/
Selaasie too. His request for assistance was finally answered
- On July 12, 1940, London recognized the Emperor as a full ally. The British
launched a three-pronged attack on the Italians. In the north, General
William Platt led the attack on Italians in Eritrea.
- In January 1941, Colonel Sandford and Major Wingate accompanied the
Emperor from the Sudan into Gojjam at the head of British and Ethiopian
troops called the Gedeon force.
- General Cunningham led the attack
Oct.4/2022from
@AEH Kenya. The advances were rapid
180
 Unit Seven: INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS, 1941-1995

- This unit examines major social, economic and political developments in Ethiopia from
1941 to 1995.
EXTERNALLY :- Relations with the British and then with the Americans

Internally: reviewing key institutions and processes that underlay the relationships
between the political center and the provinces;
- consolidation of imperial power,
- opposition movements, the 1974 Revolution,
- and the replacement of the monarchy by a Marxist leaning military government called
Derg.

181
 Restoration and Consolidation of Imperial Power and EXTERNAL RELATIONS
- In the post-194 I period, Britain recognized Ethiopia's status as a
sovereign state with mutual diplomatic accreditation
- But Britain contd. to play a dominant role in Ethiopian politics
1- the role it played in the liberation of Ethiopia from Fascist rule.
2 - continuation of WWII (1939-45) which required adequate
provision for the Allied defense to win the war.
- Accordingly, despite protests, Ethiopia was placed under the
Occupied Enemy Territory Administration (OETA).
- The 1942 and I944 agreements that Emperor Haile-Selassie I was
forced to sign with the British show this growing influence .
The 1942 agreement gave Britain a final authority over Ethiopia's foreign affairs, territorial
integrity, administration, finances, the military, and the police. The British minster in
Ethiopia enjoyed precedence over other foreign diplomats in Ethiopia and Britain was to
approve employment of other nationals by Ethiopian government. Even more, British citizens
held key posts in Ethiopian administration as advisors and judges while at the same time they
maintained total control over the country's police force, which was set up in February 1942.
– Britain decides details on disposal of Italian prisoners of war & administration of Italian
properties in the country. Oct.4/2022 @AEH 182
Britain also assumed control over currency and foreign exchange as well as import-exports.
 Second Anglo Eth Agreement - 1944
The Emperor resented such restrictions to his powers
- With the help of the USA and friends of Ethiopia such as Sylvia Pankhurst, Britain relaxed
the restrictions imposed upon the Ethiopian government.
- Asesult The second Anglo-Ethiopian agreement, signed in 1944,
- It shows some of the concessions the emperor won from Britain. FOR EXAMPLE,
- the priority accorded to the British minster over all foreign diplomats in Ethiopia was
lifted.
- The Ethiopian government could now employ non-British foreign personnel
- regained control over a section of the Addis Ababa-Djibouti railway, hence free access to
foreign goods and services including arms and ammunitions.
- The British also agreed to evacuate their army from the region once they equip
Ethiopia's army
- The BMME assisted the government of Ethiopia in organizing, training, and
administration of its army until 1951.
HISI Harar Military Academy was modeled after a British Military Academy called
Sandhurst.
H/ E, Ethiopia’s claim to Ogaden and Eritrea was declined
Both Eritrea and Ogaden were part of the Ethiopian empire before they fell into Italian
hands in 1890 and 1936 respectively.
Britain insisted that Ogaden should be merged with the former Italian Somaliland and
British Somaliland to form what they called "Greater Somalia".
183
 Ogaden and Eritrea
- Similarly, the western and northern lowlands of Eritrea were intended by the British to be
part of Sudan.
- Further, they wanted to integrate the Tigrigna speaking highlands of Eritrea with Tigray to
form a separate state.
- Therefore, in September 1945 at the London conference of Allied powers Ethiopia's
claims to Eritrea and the Ogden were rejected
- These territorial issues were resolved only after a decade.
- In 1948, the British left parts of Ogaden, and in 1954, they withdrew from the region.
- In Eritrea, people were divided; those who wanted a union with Ethiopia rallied behind
the Unionists. The Liberal Progressive Party and later the Muslim League rallied people
who sought for separation and independence.
- In 1948, the question of Eritrea was referred to the UNSC by Britain, France, USA and
USSR.
- The UN appointed a commission of five men from Burma, Guatemala, Norway, Pakistan
and South Africa to find out the actual wishes of Eritreans. After a period of investigation,
Guatemala and Pakistan recommended granting independence to Eritrea. Norway
recommended union with Ethiopia, South Africa and Burma recommended Federation. -
On December 2, 1950, UN Resolution 390V granted the Federation of Eritrea with
Ethiopia, which came into effect .in 1952. However, this arrangement did not satisfy
both unionists and the independence bloc; each side seeking to unmake the federation
* On November 14, 1962, the Eritrean Parliament, resolved to dissolve the Federation
Oct.4/2022 @AEH 184
that placed Eritrea under the imperial rule undermining any of its autonomous privileges
 Relations with The USA
- British pre-dominance in Ethiopia and the Horn, in the 1940s was
replaced by the dominance of the United States in the 1950s.
- The first official contacts between Ethiopia and the United States of
America traced back to 1903 when Ethiopia signed a Treaty of Friendship
and Commerce with the USA delegate led under Robert P. Skinner.
- HSI wanted this relations owing to , to replace British pre-dominance in
1940s by the dominance of the United; to modernize his country and
consolidate his power, he also believed that United States a powerful ally
than Britain.
- American interest in the region began to grow especially after they
acquired a communication base in Asmara known as Radio Marina from
the Italians. The radio station was later on renamed Qagnew after the
Ethiopian force that fought on the side of the Americans in the Korean
War (1950-3).
- Emperor Haile-Selassie I and the American President, Franklin D.
Roosevelt, met in Egypt and discussed recognition of an American Sinclair
Company to prospect for oil in Ogaden at the beginning of 1945.
185
 contd .
- The renewed contact between the two countries was concretized with the signing of two
agreements in the 1950s.- The 1952 & 1953 agreements
- First, the Point Four Agreement that enabled subsequent American assistance in
education and public health was signed in 1952.
- Second, the Ethio-US Treaty that granted a continued American use of the Qagnew base
in return for military assistance was signed in 1953.
- Following the 1953 treaty, the US launched a military aid program named the American
Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) to equip Ethiopia's armed forces.
- The MAAG was to train 60,000 Ethiopian soldiers in three separate divisions. In the year
between 1953 and 1968, over 2,500 Ethiopians received various forms of military training
in the US.
- By 1970, sixty percent of US military aid to Africa went to Ethiopia. In the period between
1946 and 1972, US military aid was over 180 million US Dollar.
- Civil aviation, road transport, and education were other spheres that the Americans took
active part.
- From 8 September to 15 December 1945, the founding conference of the UN was held at
San Francisco. There, the Ethiopian•delegation approached Americans for assistance to
form a civilian airline.
- An agreement was concluded with Transcontinental and Western World Airline (TWA)
that established Ethiopian Air Lines (EAL) in 1946 with five C-47 warplanes that served
during WWII and of which three were converted to passenger version DC-3.
Oct.4/2022 @AEH 186
 Contd.
- The Imperial Board of Telecommunication was established with the help of International
Telephone and Telegraph (ITT) organization between 1950 and 1952.
-In January 1951, with financial loan from the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD), the Imperial High Way Authority (IHA) was set up based on the model of
the US Bureau of Roads.
In the field of education, American presence was particularly evident in the
university and high schools. A variety of American scholarship programs under
USAID and African American Institute African Graduate Fellowship Program
(AFGRAD) offered opportunities for many Ethiopians to go to the United States for
their second and third Degrees.
- Meanwhile, many American volunteers came to Ethiopia to teach in Ethiopian
schools under the Peace Corps Program.
- Other foreign countries with significant presence in Imperial Ethiopia include Sweden and Norway
whose advisors were entrusted to the Air force and navy successively. Germany and Israel trained
and equipped the Police Force while the Swedes supported the Imperial Bodyguard and the Harar
Military Academy was entrusted to British trained Indians.
- In 1956, the Qoqa Dam was built with war reparations money that the Italians
agreed to pay .
- This was followed by the return of the Statue of Judah in 1970, which Italians
had taken during the occupation period. 187