Temperature Sensors
Types of Temperature Sensors
• Contact type – physical contact with objects to sense – use conduction to monitor
the changes – Ex: Thermometer, Thermocouple, RTD
• Non-contact type – use convection and radiation to monitor the changes – Ex:
Pyrometer, Radiation thermometer, thermal imager
• Further sub-divided into – Electro-mechanical, Resistive & Electronic sensors;
• Types:
• Thermostat
• Thermistor
• Resistive Temperature Detector
• Thermocouple
• Infrared Sensors, Thermal Radiation, Thermometer,..
Thermostat
• Thermostat :
• Contact type - Electro-mechanical temperature sensor/switch – On/Off control ;
• Two different metals bonded together to form a Bi-metallic strip – Nickel, copper,
aluminium, and tungsten
• Mechanical Thermostat maintains temperature;
• Digital thermostat ???
Thermocouple
• Active transducer – converts heat energy into electrical energy – converts
temperature into EMF – Electrical Signal
• For any thermocouple electrical signal strength will vary between 10 – 80mV
Thermocouple Working Principle
• 2 Different metals joined together to form a junction and subjected to temperature
an EMF is developed – Seebeck Effect
• Temperature – EMF relationship is Non-linear
• Seebeck Effect -
• If two metals were connected to an external circuit in such a way current is drawn –
EMF may get altered slightly – PELTIER Effect
• Temperature gradient exists along the sides of a metal – EMF undergoes additional
modification – Thomson Effect
• Law of intermediate metals -
Seebeck Effect
• If two wires of different metals forms two junctions and each junction were in different
temperatures, an electric current flows round the circuit
• With copper and iron as shown, current flows from copper to iron at hot junction and
from iron to copper in cold junction
• If copper wire is cut, an emf appears across the open terminals
Peltier Effect
• If two metals were connected to an external circuit in such a way current is drawn –
EMF may get altered slightly
• If an Emf is applied across the junction – heat is absorbed when current flows across
the Iron-copper junction
• heat is liberated if the flow of current is from Copper – Iron ;
• amount of heat absorbed or liberated depends on the magnitude of current passing
the junction
• amount of heat absorbed or liberated per Ampere flow of current per second is
called Peltier Coefficient
Thomson Effect
• Temperature gradient exists along the sides of a metal – EMF undergoes additional
modification – Thomson Effect
• When a meter is connected to measure the voltage induced due to thermoelectric
effect, it forms addition of conductors and new junctions
• Law of intermediate metals & Temperature:
• Law intermediate metal states that if a third homogeneous metal ‘C’ is introduced
into one of the conductor A or B, the net emf in the circuit remains unchanged as the
junction formed are of same temperature – No change in Net EMF
Cold Junction Compensation
• Induced emf depends on the reference temperature which is the temperature of
the cold junction.
• If the cold junction temperature varies then its will introduce error in measurement
• Cold junction compensation – ICE Bath / thermostatically controlled oven (or)
subtract the voltage equivalent to cold junction temperature – thermistor ;
• Semiconductor Sensors:
• PN Junction diodes/transistors were well suited for temperature measurement
• Junction potential of silicon diode/transistor changes about 2.2mV/°C of wide temp. range
• Inexpensive & fast response
• Analog device AD590 – two terminal temp. sensitive current source
Materials used and Characteristics
• Platinum/Platinum-rhodium +630 to 1500ᵒC
• Copper/Constantan -200 to 400ᵒC
• Iron/Constantan -150 to 100ᵒC
• Chromel/Alumel -200 to 130ᵒC
High Temperatures
• Boron/Graphite +1250 to 2500ᵒC
• Tungsten/Molybdenum & Tungsten/Rhenium 2500ᵒC
Types of Measurement
• Suction type:
Thermocouple is exposed to the hot gases after it is extracted from the hot furnace and
made to flow continuously through its hot junction
• Immersion type:
Thermocouple will be directly immersed into the hot fluids or gases whose temperature
is to be measured. For higher temp a protective shield of mild steel is used.
• To avoid oxidation, the junction is normally coated with refractory materials like fire clay,
porcelain or fused silica.
Thermopile - Series and Parallel Combination
• To get higher output emf, several thermocouples are connected in series
• Thermal radiations or solar radiations are detected by a series arrangement of about
25 thermocouples of silver-bismuth or chromel-constantan
• This arrangement is called Thermopile
• To measure the average temperature two or more thermocouples are connected in
parallel
Series connection Parallel connection
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
• RTD – made up of platinum – positive temperature co-efficient, i.e., T↑ - R↑;
• Materials – Platinum, Nickel, Copper, Tungsten, Balco
• Construction – platinum wire is wounded over a glass stem / ceramic bobbin –
entire sensor sealed in an glass envelope to withstand high temperature;
• RTD – temp. vs. resistance is linear (not in extended range);
• Most Accurate measurement
• Ranges between -180 °C to 850 °C
• Platinum is preferred for its inertness
• Applications: Monitor Engine temperature
• Oil level sensor, air intake temperature,
RTD
• RTD resistance changes with change in temperature, can be expressed as
• Ro = resistance at T = 0 °C and αx = constants
• Purity of platinum is verified by Rt100/Rt0 > 1.390
• Estimating resistance vs. temperature with linear approximation expressed
as
2 Wire RTD
• Wheat stone bridges were used to determine unknown resistance of RTD, which
changes with temperature
• 2 wire RTD incorporates lead wire resistance – lengthen lead wires, increases
significant error
3 Wire RTD & 4 Wire RTD
• 3 Wire & 4 Wire RTD cancels lead wire resistance in the circuit
• RTD lead wire resistance cancelation – Verify?
• Self Heating Effect: ΔT = P/Pd
• Pd – RTD dissipation constant in W/ °C
[Link]
Thermistors
• made up of semiconductor materials, which have high Negative temperature co-
efficient i.e., temp. T↑ - decrease in Resistance R↓ ; (few with +Ve temp. co-efficient)
• It exhibits greater change in resistance for each °C
• Highly sensitive than RTD & Thermocouple but highly Non-linear
• Operating range: -50 °C - 300 °C (500 °C in extended range)
• Quick response time : 0.5 – 5 sec.
• Care should be taken in minimizing internal heating effect
Comparison of RTD, Thermistor & Thermocouple
