Atom

The atom is
composed of:  positively charged (+)
protons,

 uncharged neutrons
and

 negatively charged
(-) electrons

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 1 of 29

 Atom

Thomson’s Model Rutherford’s Model

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 2 of 29

 Atom

Bohr’s Model

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 3 of 29

 Nucleus

Protons and neutrons together

form the nucleus of the atom.

The nucleus determines the

identity of the element and its
atomic mass.
Proton and neutrons have essentially the
same mass but only the proton is charged
while the neutron has no charge.

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 4 of 29

 Protons

Protons are positively charged

particles found inside the
nucleus of an atom. Each
element has a unique atomic
number (a unique number of
protons).

Proton number never changes for any given

element. For example, oxygen has an atomic
number of 8 indicating that oxygen always has
8 protons.

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 5 of 29

 Neutrons

Neutrons are the other particle

found in the nucleus of an
atom. Unlike protons and
electrons, however, neutrons
carry no electrical charge and
are thus "neutral."

Atoms of a given element do not always

contain the same number of neutrons.

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 6 of 29

 Electrons

Electrons are negatively

charged particles that surround
the nucleus in “orbits” similar
to moons orbiting a planet.

The sharing or exchange of electrons between

atoms forms chemical bonds which is how
new molecules and compounds are formed.

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 7 of 29

 ELECTRON BINDING ENERGY

 Electrons exist in discrete “shells” around

the nucleus (similar to planets around the
sun)
 Each shell represents a unique binding
energy holding the electron to the nucleus
 The shells are designated by letters (K, L, M,
N …) where K, the shell closest to the
nucleus, has the largest binding energy, so
the K electron is the most tightly bound
 Maximum number of electrons in each shell:
2 in K shell, 8 in L shell …
4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 8 of 29
 Summary of the Atom

Particle Symbol Mass (kg) Energy (MeV) Charge

Proton p 1.672E-27 938.2 +1
Neutron n 1.675E-27 939.2 0
Electron e 0.911E-30 0.511 -1

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 9 of 29

 Atomic Mass Unit (amu)

Where 1 amu is
approximately equal to
1.6605 x 10-24 grams

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 10 of 29

 Atomic Mass Unit (amu)

The atomic mass of the proton and the neutron

is approximately:

Proton = 1.6726 x 10-24 grams = 1.0073 amu

Neutron = 1.6749 x 10-24 grams = 1.0087 amu

Thus, the neutron is just a little heavier than

the proton.

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 11 of 29

 Atomic Mass Unit (amu)

The difference in the mass of the neutron

and the proton can be understood if we
assume that the neutron is merely a proton
combined with an electron forming a neutral
particle slightly more massive than a proton
alone.

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 12 of 29

 Atomic Mass Unit (amu)

The atomic mass of the electron is

approximately:

Electron = 9.1094 x 10-28 grams = 0.00055 amu

Thus, the electron has a much smaller mass

than either the proton or the neutron, 1837
times smaller or about 2000 times smaller.

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 13 of 29

 Elements

The number of protons in an atom dictate

the element.

For an uncharged atom, the number of

electrons equals the number of protons.
4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 14 of 29
 Isotopes

Atoms of an
element that have
a different number
of neutrons in the
nucleus are called
isotopes of each
other.

A Xy = element symbol
isotope notation
typically written as: Z
Xy A = atomic mass (neutron + protons)
Z = atomic number (protons)
4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 15 of 29
 Isotopes

The number of
protons and
electrons remain
the same.

But the number of

neutrons varies.

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 16 of 29

 Isotopes

equal number of protons and neutrons

There are many

isotopes. Most
have more
neutrons than
protons. Some
are stable but
most are unstable
(radioactive).

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 17 of 29

 Stable Nuclides

long range
electrostatic
forces p Line of stability

n
short range
nuclear forces

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 18 of 29

 Stable and Unstable Nuclides

Too many
neutrons
for stability

Too many
protons
for stability

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 19 of 29

 Radioactive Decay

IAEA Post Graduate Educational Course

4/2003 Rev 2 Radiation Protection and Safe Use of Radiation Sources I.2.1 – slide 20 of 29
 Introduction

 Radioactive decay is the process by which

unstable atoms transform themselves into
new chemical elements

 Students will learn about decay constants,

activity, units, half-life, how to use the
radioactive decay equation, and mean life

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 21 of 29

 Content

 Activity
 Law of Radioactive Decay
 Half-Life
 Decay Constant
 Mean Life
 Units

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 22 of 29

 Activity

The amount of a radionuclide present

SI unit is the becquerel (Bq)

1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 23 of 29

 Multiples & Prefixes (Activity)

Multiple Prefix Abbreviation

1 ------- Bq
1,000,000 Mega (M) MBq
1,000,000,000 Giga (G) GBq
1,000,000,000,000 Tera (T) TBq
1 x 1015 Peta (P) PBq

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 24 of 29

 Units

Curie (Ci) = 3.7 x 1010 dps

Becquerel (Bq) = 1 dps

1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 25 of 29

 Non-SI Units

Quantity Old Unit SI Unit Conversion

Activity curie (Ci) becquerel (Bq) 1 Ci=3.7 x 1010Bq

Absorbed
Dose rad gray (Gy) 1 rad = 0.01 Gy

Equivalent
Dose rem sievert (Sv) 1 rem = 0.01 Sv

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 26 of 29

 Decay Constant

The Decay Constant is denoted by 

1
NOTE: Units on  are time

Typically 1 or sec-1 or “per second”

sec

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 27 of 29

 Activity

A = N

where “A = activity” has units of

disintegrations per second
(dps or Bq)

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 28 of 29

 Half-Life and Decay Constant

The relationship between half-life

and decay constant is:

T½ = 0.693


4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 29 of 29

 Half-Life

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 30 of 29

 Half-Life

Radionuclide Half-Life
Phosphorus-32 14.3 days
Iridium-192 74 days
Cobalt-60 5.25 years
Caesium-137 30 years
Carbon-14 5760 years
Uranium-238 4.5 x 109 years
4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 31 of 29
 Sample Problem

A criticality accident occurs in a Uranium

processing facility. 1019 fissions occur over
a 17-hour period. Given that the fission yield
for 131I is 0.03 and its half-life is 8 days,
calculate the 131I activity at the end of the
accident. Neglect 131I decay during the
accident.

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 32 of 29

 Solution to Sample Problem

0.693 x 1
Activity = N =
8 days 86,400 sec day-1

x ( 1019 x 0.03) = 3 x 1011 Bq 131

I

3 x 1011 Bq
= 8.1 Ci 131I
3.7 x 1010 Bq/Ci

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 33 of 29

 Differential Equation for
Radioactive Decay

dN
= -N(t)
dt

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 34 of 29

 Radioactive Decay Equation

N(t) = No e -t

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 35 of 29

 Radioactive Decay Equation

Expressing the equation in terms of activity:

 N(t) =  No e -t

or A(t) = Ao e - t

where A(t) = activity at any time t

and Ao = the initial activity at time t = 0
4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 36 of 29
 Radioactive Decay

The amount of activity decayed away

after “n” half-lives is given by

1- A
Ao

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 37 of 29

 Radioactive Decay

The amount of activity “A” remaining

after “n” half-lives is given by

A = 1
Ao 2n

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 38 of 29

 Mean Life

TM = 1.44 T1/2

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 39 of 29

 Radioactive Decay

Activity (A)

Bq

or

disintegration
time

time (t)

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 40 of 29

 Example

A Vehicle Traveling at Constant Speed

50
Speed (s)
The area under
the curve is
kph
speed x time or
or (50 km/hr) x 1 hr
kilometers = 50 kilometers
hour

time (hours) 1

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 41 of 29

 Example

A Decelerating Vehicle

50
The area under
Speed (s) the curve is
kph
(speed x time)/2
or
or
(50 kph x 1 hr)/2 =
kilometers 25 kilometers
hour

time (hours) 1

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 42 of 29

 Area Under the Decay Curve

A = Ao e -  t

 

0
A dt = 
0
Ao e - t dt


= Ao 
0
e - t dt

= Ao e - t

- 0

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 43 of 29

 Area Under the Decay Curve

Substituting  and 0 for t

= Ao e -  () - e - (0)
- -

0 1
= Ao -
- -

1 Ao
= Ao 0 + =
 

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 44 of 29

 Half-Life

A = Ao e -  t or A
= e - t
Ao

However, when t = T½, the activity

decreases to ½ of the original value:
value

A ½Ao
= = ½
Ao Ao

½ = e - T½

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 45 of 29

 Half-Life & Decay Constant

Take the natural logarithm of both sides

- T½
ln (½) = ln (e
(e )
)

ln (½) = -T½

Regrouping terms yields 1 -T½

=
 ln (½)

1 -T½ T½
But ln (½) = - ln (2) so: = =
 - ln (2) ln (2)

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 46 of 29

 Mean Life & Decay Constant

1 T½
= but ln(2) = 0.693
 ln (2)

1 T½
= = 1.44 T½ = Tm
 0.693

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 47 of 29

 Mean Life

Ao

Activity (A)

Bq

or ½Ao Tm = 1.44 T½

disintegration
time

T½ Tm time (t)

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 48 of 29

 Mean Life

Ao

Activity (A)
Remember the
equation A = N
Bq
½Ao
or the total # of atoms
disintegration
N = Ao/ = AoTm
time

Tm time (t)

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 49 of 29

 Sample Problem

A radionuclide has a half life of 10 days.

What is the mean life?

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 50 of 29

 Solution to Sample Problem

Mean Life = 1.44 T1/2

= 1.44 x 10 days

= 14.4 days

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 51 of 29

 Nuclear Reactions

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 52 of 29

 Introduction

 Various examples of nuclear reactions will

be discussed

 Students will learn about properties of

neutrons, nuclear decay processes, cross
section, neutron interactions, and various
kinds of nuclear reactions including charged
particle reactions, spallation, fission and
fusion reactions

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 53 of 29

 Content

 Properties of neutrons
 Nuclear decay processes
 Neutron interactions
 Charged particle reactions
 Spallation
 Fission
 Fusion

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 54 of 29

 Properties of Neutrons

 Neutron Discovery
Chadwick, 1932, alpha bombardment
He + Be  C + n + Q
 Neutron Classification
Thermal (0.0025 eV)
Slow (1 - 100 eV)
Epithermal (100 eV – 100 keV)
Fast (100 keV – 1 MeV)
Ultrafast (>1 MeV)
4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 55 of 29
 Properties of Neutrons

 Neutron Characteristics
 symbol - n
 no charge
 rest energy 939.507 MeV
 has a magnetic moment
 it is a fermion

 Neutron Interaction with matter

 Scattering (2 mechanisms)
 Absorption (>4 mechanisms)
4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 56 of 29
 Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear Decay

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 57 of 29

 Nuclear Reactions
Alpha Decay

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 58 of 29

 Nuclear Reactions
Beta Decay

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 59 of 29

 Nuclear Reactions
Positron Decay or Electron Capture

Positron Emission

Electron Capture

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 60 of 29

 Nuclear Reactions
Summary of Major Decay Mechanisms

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 61 of 29

 Nuclear Reactions
Fast Neutron Interactions

 Elastic scattering - neutrons interact with

particles of approximately the same mass
such as protons (billiard ball analogy)

 Occurs in materials rich in hydrogen

such as water, wax, concrete

 Accounts for about 80% of fast

neutron dose to tissue

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 62 of 29

 Nuclear Reactions
Fast Neutron Interactions

 Inelastic scattering – neutrons interact

with particles of much greater mass, for
example, iron (table tennis ball vs
bowling ball analogy)

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 63 of 29

 Nuclear Reactions
Elastic Scattering of Neutrons

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 64 of 29

 Nuclear Reactions
Inelastic Scattering of Neutrons

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 65 of 29

 Neutron Reactions

(n, CP) 1
0 n  B Li He  Q
10
5
7
3
4
2

(n, gamma) 1
0 n  Co Co    
59 60

(n, fission)
1
0 n 235
92 U 236
92 U  Mo Li
* 95 139

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 66 of 29

 Nuclear Reactions
Neutron Absorption, Charged Particle

n + B  7Li(*) + 
10

Li(*)  7Li + soft gamma (480 KeV)

7

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 67 of 29

 Fission

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 68 of 29

 Breeding 239Pu from 238U
Neutron Capture

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 69 of 29

 Details of 239U Decay to 239Pu

 
239
U (23.5 min)  239Np (2.3 d)  239Pu

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 70 of 29

 Nuclear Reactions
Charged Particle Bombardment

p + Zn 
68 67
Ga + 2n

 + 16
O  F
18
+ p + n

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 71 of 29

 Nuclear Reactions
Spallation

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 72 of 29

 Nuclear Fusion Reactions
Utilize Isotopes of Hydrogen

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 73 of 29

 Nuclear Reactions
Fusion

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 74 of 29

 Deuteron – Deuteron Fusion

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 75 of 29

 Tritium – Proton
Production from Fusion

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 76 of 29

 He with Neutron Production
3

from Fusion

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 77 of 29

 RADIATION

NON-IONIZING RADIATION does not have enough

energy to remove electrons from Atoms
4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 78 of 29
 Alpha particle

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 79 of 29

 Beta Particle

P
4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 80 of 29
 Gamma Rays

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 81 of 29

 Neutrons

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 82 of 29

 Shielding………

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 83 of 29

 ALPHA RADIATION

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 84 of 29

 BETA RADIATION

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 85 of 29

 X- and GAMMA RADIATION

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 86 of 29

 NEUTRONS

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 87 of 29

 Principles of Radiation Protection

Shield
SOURCE

Distance
Time
Reduce the strength of the SOURCE
I.2.1 – slide 88 of 29
4/2003 Rev 2
 External Radiation Hazards

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 89 of 29

 Questions?

4/2003 Rev 2 I.2.1 – slide 90 of 29