Biomedical Engineering

 Biomedical Engineering is the application of

engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and
biology for healthcare purposes.
The biomedical engineering provides electrical, electronic,

electro-optical, and computer engineering support to clinical

and biomedical applications
Biomedical instrumentation system
Energy Source
 Used to energize the whole instrumentation system.
 Examples: Electric, light, infrared, mechanical and
ultrasound
Measurand
 The physical quantity, property, or condition that the system
measures is called measurand.
 When a stimulus is applied the subject generates a variety of
signals
 Examples:
 Internal (Blood Pressure) –vivo measurement
 On the Body Surface (Electrocardiogram) -vitro

measurement
Calibration
 Purpose is to convert the physiological signals generated
from the human body to a particular standard unit
 Calibration signals are usually applied to sensors

Sensor / Transducer
 Sensor detect the signal from the human body
 The transducer is defined as a device that converts one form
of energy to another.
 A sensor converts a physical measurand to an electric output.
Signal Conditioning
1. Pre amplifier
2. Signal processing

 amplify and filter the signal

 match the impedance of the sensor to the display.
 Often sensor outputs are converted to digital form and then
processed by specialized digital circuits or a microcomputer.
 For example, signal filtering may reduce undesirable sensor
signals.
 It may also average repetitive signals to reduce noise, or it may
convert information from the time domain to the frequency
domain.
Display system
Provide visible representation of the quantity
Displacement on a scale
On chart of a recorder
On a screen of Cathode ray tube
In numerical form
Audible signals from alarm
Alarm system
 Upper and lower thresholds to indicate when the measurand
goes beyond the limits

Data storage
 maintain data for future reference

 Eg: Hard copy on a paper, Magnetic/Semiconductor

memories
Data transmission system
 Using standard interface connections information can be
carried to distant locations
Stimulus
Effect on patient is measured
Visual  flash light(Eg.:EEG)
Audio tone
Direct electrical stimulation of some part of nervous system

Automatic control system

 Transducer, Stimulus, Signal conditioner
 Feedback loop is provided  part of output is fed back to input
stage
 Anatomy
Science of structure of the body

Gross anatomy-The study of the organs, parts, and structures

of body that are visible to the naked eye

Topographical anatomy-position of organs in relation to each

other

Microscopic anatomy(Histology)-study of minute structure of

the body using microscopy

Cytology-study of structure ,function and development of cells

 Physiological systems
Science of function of the body

Cardiovascular

Respiratory

Nervous
1. Cardiovascular system
Transport oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, chemical

compounds and blood cells to and from the cells

Heart

 2 upper atria- the receiving chambers

 2 lower ventricles- the discharging chambers

4 valves

 Tricuspid Valve Control blood flow from the atria to the ventricles

 Mitral Valve

 Aortic Valve Control blood flow out of the ventricles

 Pulmonary Valve
 Blood vessels
Arteries-carry oxygenated blood away from the heart

Veins- carry de oxygenated blood from the capillaries back

toward the heart

Capillaries- enable the actual exchange of water and chemicals

between the blood and the tissues

Circulatory system
Pulmonary circulation-occurs between the heart and the lungs

Systemic circulation-oxygenated blood is pumped from the heart to

the body and deoxygenated blood is returned back to the heart.

2.Respiratory system
Through breathing, inhalation and exhalation, the respiratory

system facilitates the exchange of gases between the air and the
blood and between the blood and the body’s cells
Lungs
 3. Nervous system
Control and communication network of body which co-ordinates

functions of various organs

Central Nervous system –Brain & Spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous system-Nerves and neurons

outside Brain & Spinal cord

Digestive system

Excretory system

Reproductive system

Biochemical system
Sources of Bioelectric Potential
Human body generates its own monitoring signals during
body functions.
These signals provide useful information about the function of
the body.
They are bioelectric potentials associated with nerve
conduction, brain activity, heartbeat, muscle activity and so
on.
The ionic potential produced inside the human body are
called bioelectric potential
These potentials are produced in 2 ways
 Due to the flow of ions into and out of cells
 Half cell potential
Bioelectric potentials are actually ionic voltages produced as
a result of electro chemical activity of certain cell.

Transducers are used to convert these ionic potentials in to
electrical signals

The principle ions are sodium (Na+) Potassium (K+) and

chloride (Cl-).
1. Resting Potential [Polarization]
It is the potential of the cell in its resting or normal
Certain types of cells within the body, such as nerve and
muscle cells has a semi permeable membrane.
This membrane permits some substances to pass through
while others are kept out.
Surrounding the cells of the body are the body fluids.
These fluids are conductive solutions containing charged
atoms known as ions.

The principle ions are sodium (Na+) Potassium (K+) and

chloride (Cl-).
The membrane of excitable cells permits entry of Potassium
(K+) and chloride(C-) ions but blocks the entry of sodium
(Na+) ions. So inside the cell is more negative than outside
cell.
This membrane potential is called Resting potentials.
This potential is measured from inside the cell with respect to
body fluids. So resting potential of a cell is negative.

This resting potential ranging from -60mv to -100 mv.

Cell in the resting state is called polarized cell.

Polarized cell with its resting potential
 2. Action Potential [Depolarization]
When a section of a cell membrane is excited by the flow of
ionic current or by some form of externally applied energy,
the membrane allows some Na+ and try to reach some balance
of potential inside and outside.
Same time the some K+ goes outside but not rapidly like
sodium.
As a result, the cell has slightly Positive potential on the
inside Due to the imbalance of the Potassium ions. This
potential is known as Action potential and is approximately
+20 mV.
A cell that has been excited and that displays an action
potential is said to be depolarized .
The process from resting to action potential is called
depolarization
 Depolarization of a cell

Depolarized cell during action potential

Characteristics of Resting and Action Potential
 Propagation of action potentials
When a cell is exited and generates an action potentials ionic
currents to flow. This process excite neighboring cells or
adjacent area of the same cell
The rate at which an action potential moves down a fiber or
is propagate from cell to cell is called the propagation rate.

In nerve fiber the propagation rate is also called the nerve
conduction rate, or conduction velocity.
 Velocity range in nerves is from 20 to 140 meters per second.
In heart muscle, the rate is slower, average 0.2 to 0.4 m/sec .
 Bio-electric signals
Galvani introduced concept of bioelectric signal in 18th century
Generated by muscles and nerves due to migration of ions
which generates potential differences.
Normal muscular contraction generates potential differences
Potential differences are also generated by the
electrochemical changes accompanied with the conduction of
signals along the nerves to or from the brain .
These signals are of the order of a few microvolts and gives rise
to the electrical activity when recorded.
Ionic migrations are generating bioelectric potential at
cellular level.
 A cell consists of an ionic conductor separated from the
outside environment by a semi permeable membrane which
acts as the selective ionic filter to the ions.
Cells are surrounded by ionic body fluids which is the
conducting medium for electric potentials.
Electrocardiogram(ECG)
Electroencephalogram(EEG)
Electromyogram(EMG)
Electroretinogram(ERG)
Electro-oculogram(EOG)
Electrogastrogram(EGG)
 Electrocardiogram(ECG)
The bio-potentials generated by the muscles of the heart
result in the electrocardiogram
ECG
P wave corresponds to depolarization of Atrial muscles
QRS complex  repolarization of atria and ventricular
depolarization(occur almost simultaneously
PQ and PR intervals  Time taken by an impulse
leaving SA node to reach the ventricles(Delay line)
PR0.12 to 0.2s
T wave corresponds to ventricular repolarization
Electroencephalogram(EEG)
Each neuron in the brain generates potentials
Neuron gets polarized at rest and gets depolarized when
exposed to stimulus
The recorded representation of bioelectric potential by the
neuronal activity of the brain is called the
electroencephalogram.
The waveform varies with the location of the electrodes on the
surface of the scalp.
Frequency0.5 to 50 Hz
100μV when measured on scalp & 1mV on exposed brain
Frequency indicates state of brain
Classified into Five bands for analysis

Deep sleep
Fall asleep
Drowsy
Paradoxical sleep, Rapid eye
movement(REM)

Alpha Indicator of state of alertness

Indicator of depth of anaesthesia
 Deep sleep
Fall asleep
Drowsy
Paradoxical sleep, Rapid eye
movement(REM)
 Electromyogram(EMG)
Contraction of skeletal muscles results in action potential in
muscle fibres
The bioelectric potentials associated with muscle activity
constitute the electromyogram.

Repolarization takes place faster than cardiac muscles

Summation of action potentials of fibres in a muscle
Measured on the surface of the body or by penetrating the skin
using needle electrodes.
Typical EMG
 Eelctroretinogram (ERG)
A record of the complex pattern of the bioelectric
potentials obtained from the retina of the eye.
Usually a response to a visual stimulus
a-wave is the first large negative component
a wave is followed by the b-wave  corneal positive 
usually larger in amplitude
Two electrodes:
 One electrode is mounted on a contact lens and is in direct
contact with cornea
Other electrode on the skin near the outer corner of eye
Reference electrode on the forehead
Magnitude of ERG depends on duration and intensity of light
stimulus(typical value 500μV)
Electro-oculogram (EOG)
Recording of bio potentials generated by movement of eyeball
Potentials are picked up by surface electrodes placed on the
skin near the eye
Two pairs of electrodes:
One pair above and below eye to pick up voltages
corresponding to vertical movements
One pair left and right of eye to measure horizontal
movement
Electrogastrogram (EGG):
Pattern associated with peristaltic movements of
gastrointestinal tract
Electrodes placed on the abdomen over the stomach
Surface recording
 Electrodes
Bioelectric potentials generated in the body are ionic potential
produced by ionic current flow.

Electrodes provide Interface between the body and the

measuring apparatus.
It also Convert ionic potential into electronic potential

Transducer has 2 electrodes that measure ionic potential difference

between two points
EEG

EMG
 Electrode theory
When a metal electrode comes in contact with an electrolyte,
electrodes discharge ions into solution and ions in the
electrolyte to metal
Electrode potential is the result of the difference in
diffusion rates of ions into and out of metal

Potential developed at the interface of metallic ions in solution

with their associated metal(surface electrode-electrolyte)
• Electrode paste/jelly(Electrolyte) is the interface between
electrode and skin surface-to avoid movement artifacts and to get
clear contact

Electrode- tissue interface

At metal-electrolyte interface, electrodes discharge ions into
solution and ions in the electrolyte combine with electrode
Due to diffusion of ions a charge gradient is created at the
metal-electrolyte interface  Electrical double
layer/Helmholtz layer
Voltage developed at the interface is the Half cell potential
It is difficult to determine the absolute potential of an electrode.

Hydrogen electrode(0V) used as reference electrode

 Nernst Relation
Another source of electrode potential Due to unequal

exchange of ions across an ion selective semi permeable

membrane which separates fluids with different concentrations of
that ion
Electric potential exists between the solutions on either side of

the membrane, based upon the relative activity of the permeable

ions in each of these solutions
The relationship between the ionic concentration (activity) and

the electrode potential is given by the Nernst equation

R=Gas constant(8.315x107 ergs/mole/K)
T=Absolute temperature(K)
n=valence of electrons(no. of electrons added or removed to ionize
the atom)
F=Faraday constant(96,500 coulombs)
c1,c2  Concentration of ions on the two sides of the membrane
f1,f2  Activity coefficients of ions on the two sides of the
membrane

When no electric current flows between an electrode and the

solution of its ions or across an ion permeable membrane, the
potential should be the half-cell potential or the Nernst potential
 Equivalent circuit for bio-potential electrode

•Rd and Cd represent the impedance associated with the electrode-

electrolyte interface and polarization at this interface.
•Rs is the series resistance associated with electrode materials.
•The battery Ehc represents the half-cell potential
•Polarizable Electrodes
No charge crosses the electrode-electrolyte interface when a
current is applied. (e.g Platinum electrode)

•Non-Polarizable Electrode
Current passes freely across the electrode-electrolyte interface.
(e.g. Ag/AgCl Electrode)
 Biopotential electrodes
Bio-potential electrodes convert ionic conduction to
electronic conduction so that bio-potential signals can be
measured

1. Micro electrodes Bio electric potential near or within a

single cell
2. Skin surface electrodes Measure ECG,EEG,EMG from
the surface of the skin
3. Needle electrodes Penetrate the skin to record EEG or
EMG
1. Micro electrodes
Measure potential across the cell membrane
Tip very small to penetrate a single cell
Smaller in size with respect to the cell dimension
Avoids causing cell damage
Doesn’t change the cell’s behavior
Tip dimension0.5 to 5μm
Should be accurately positioned

Types of micro electrode

Metal type
Micropipette (Non metallic type)
 Metal Type Microelectrodes

Formed from fine needle of strong metal

Tungsten or Stainless Steel

Electrolytically etching the tip

Insulated with an appropriate insulator up to its tip

Electrolytic processing can also be done on the tip to

lower impedance
Used in direct contact with tissue

Metal-ion interface takes place when metal tip contacts

electrolyte outside or inside the cell.

 Micropipette (Non-metallic Microelectrode)
Prepared from glass capillaries

Glass Micropipette with the tip drawn out to the desired size

(usually about 1μm).

The central region of a piece of capillary tubing is heated to the

softening point
It is then rapidly stretched and broken apart to produce a pipette

structure.
Filled with an electrolyte solution compatible with cellular

fluids.
A Cap containing a metal electrode is then sealed to the pipette.
 Metal wire and electrolyte inside micropipet
Electrolyte inside micropipet and fluids inside/outside the
cell

Micro electrodes have impedance upto megohms  High

impedance amplifiers are required
 2. Skin Surface electrodes
Pick up bioelectric potentials from the surface of the body
Larger electrodes for ECG
Smaller electrodes for EEG& EMG
Immersion electrodes used in early stages
Subject placed his hand and feet in a bucket of saline water
Restricted position of subject
Danger of Electrolyte spillage
Immersion electrodes
Plate electrodes
Separated from subject’s skin by cotton or felt pads soaked

in strong saline solution

Later metal was allowed to contact skin through a coat of

conductive jelly(electrolyte)
Electrode slippage problem
Suction type
Require no straps or adhesives for holding it in place
Frequently used in chest leads
Can be placed at a particular location
Consists of a hollow metallic cylindrical electrode that
makes contact with the skin at its base.
 A Lead wire is attached to the metal cylinder
A rubber suction bulb fits over its other base.
 Electrolyte gel is placed over the contacting surface.
The bulb is squeezed and placed on the chest wall and then
the bulb is released and applies suction against the skin,
holding the electrode assembly in place.
Suction & pressure of the contact surface against the
skin creates irritation
Small contacting area with a large overall size
Floating electrodes
No movement artefact avoid direct contact of skin with
metal
Electrolyte is the conductive path between metal and
skin
Attached to skin using double sided adhesive tape
 3.Needle electrodes
Reduce interface impedance & movement artefacts

Penetrate scalp for EEG measurements

Fine insulated wires whose tips are in contact with nerve
muscle or tissue
Remainder of wire is insulated

EMGcopper or platinum
Uninsulated tip with electrolytes of bodymetal-electrolyte
interface
Unipolar electrode---Single wire inside a needle

Bipolar electrode---Two wires inside a needle very localized

measurement

Less susceptible to movement artefacts

Bio potential amplifiers
Amplify bio-potentials which are generated in the body and

increase signal strength

Amplify voltage, power and current

Isolate the load from the source

 Characteristics
1. High input impedance

2. Low output impedance

3. The bio potential amplifier must be sensitive to important

frequency components of the bio signal.

4. Bio potential amplifiers have a gain of 1000 or greater.

5. Most bio potential amplifiers are Differential amplifier

6. High common mode rejection ratio.

 Limitations
Input impedance lessLoading
Less CMRR
Instrumentation Amplifier
• Very high i/p impedence
• Low power consumption
• Available in single IC
• High slew rate
• Low bias & offset currents
• Very high CMRR
3 op-amps and seven resistors
Two buffer amplifiers A1 and A2 ,a differential amplifier A3.
Rvar balance out any common mode voltage.
Rg  used to set the gain
Carrier amplifier
Carrier Oscillator
• It is used to energize the transducer with an alternating
carrier voltage.(2.5KHz)

Strain gauge transducer:

• The information signal from the body electrodes reaches the
transducer where it is amplitude modulated using carrier
signal from the carrier oscillator.
• The transducer changes the amplitude of carrier signal with
respect to the physiological variable being measured.
• The output of transducer is amplitude modulated signal.
Amplifier
• Amplifier used is Multistage Amplifier is capacitance
coupled
• The modulated signal from the transducer is given to this
amplifier
• The first stage produces amplification of AM signal.
• Second stage responds to signal frequency components of
carrier signal only.
• Further amplified in the next stage.

Rectifier
• Output from the amplifier is converted into unidirectional
signal using a rectifier.
Phase sensitive Detector
• The signal is demodulated and extracts the amplified
information signal.

Direct Writing Recorder

• The voltage produced by the detector stage is then fed to the
driver stage of the recording system.
Used to obtain zero frequency response of dc amplifier.
High Stability of capacitance coupled amplifier
 Chopper amplifier
• Operate on low frequency signals
• High gain DC amplifiers
– difficult to build
– drift problem

• Output will shift continuously even when i/p is constant

• Chopping device → slowly varying dc to an alternating

form AC voltage is then amplified by an ac amplifier

• Rectified back to get an amplified direct current

Chopper amplifier
 Low Pass Filter
•The low frequency components is derived from the input signal
by passing it through low pass filter R2C2 and R2

Chopper
•The output of LPF is chopped using a transistor switch with
respect to a carrier signal from the oscillator.

Demodulator
•The original signal is recovered in demodulator and is
again applied to second stage of amplification.
 Low Pass Filter
• Before amplification low frequency components are again
filtered out using LPF

Second Stage of Amplification (A2)

• At the input of A2 an HPF C1R1 is used to filter the high
frequency signals.
• This reduces the dc offset and drift of second amplifier A2.
 Isolation Amplifier
• Protect patient from hazard of electric shock from the
potentially dangerous voltages or currents coming from the
un-isolated (mains powered )part of the system
• Between electrodes and equipment
• The amplifier has to withstand the largest expected isolation
voltages without damage
• 3 types

1. Transformer isolation
2. Optical isolation
3. Capacitive isolation
1. Transformer isolation
• PWM carrier(BW upto 30 KHz) carries the signal

• Internal DC-DC converter

• Transformer

• Rectifier

• Filter
 2. Optical
• isolation
Isolation optically
• Separate battery operated circuit supplies power to patient
circuits

• Signal converted to light

• On the o/p side phototransistor converts light to electrical
signal

• No modulator, demodulator required

 3. Capacitive isolation

• Digital encoding of i/p

• Sends signal using FM across a Capacitive barrier
• Separate power supply on both sides
• Signal BW upto 70 KHz
Transformer isolation Optical isolation Capacitive isolation

More popular Minimum no. of

components

Cost effective Cost effective Expensive

Isolation voltage b/w i/p Lowest isolation Isolation voltage

& o/p voltage 800V 2200V
1200V

Isolation resistance 1010 1012 1012

Gain stability &
Linearity more