BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

The Catholic University of Malawi

Instructor : JOABE A. (MBA)
 Naming’omba Tea Estate requires research to
understand worker compensation

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 References

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 1.

INTRODUCTION

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 Introduction

• Although in most cases many business decisions are made on

managers intuition, such decision making carries with it risks
• Such Decisions would arise in the following cases as example:
• Implementing an electronic queuing system in banks without understanding
customer response to the system
• Introducing a new product in a market without understanding customer response

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 Introduction

• Introducing controls without understanding the effect on employee

job motivation
• Implementing a community project without understanding the
perception of the community on the project
• Engaging marketing programs without appreciation of levels of
customer satisfaction

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 Introduction

• Informed decisions can be made by gathering appropriate information

about customer, employees, economy, the market and any factors that
affect the business and this reduces risk.
• Research is a process of finding a solution to a problem after a
thorough study and analysis of the situational factors.
• The purpose of research is to provide solutions or understanding of a
problem

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 Introduction
• Example:
• If you observe that sales are declining, you can carry out a research to understand the
causes

• If you discover that auditors lack independence, one can carry out a research to
understand the reasons

• If there is an observation that interests rates continue to be high despite many players in
the financial industry, one can carry out an investigation to understand the phenomenon

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 Introduction

• If there is a high employee turnover, one can investigate or carry out a

research to understand reasons

• If there are high failure rate of start up entrepreneurs, one can carry
out a research to find out reasons

• If you want to understand the intentions of Catholic University

students to start businesses you can carry out a research
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 Introduction

• Research is a systematic and methodological process of inquiry i.e. it is a step

by step undertaking of investigation, not in non random, haphazard,
disorganized way.

• Research applies scientific methods in search of reality or truth.

• Scientific method is a formalized research procedure that can be

characterized as logical, objective, systematic, reliable, valid, impersonal and
on going
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 Introduction

• In this systematic process, the tasks include:

• designing methods for collecting information

• managing the information collection process
• analyzing and interpreting the results
• communicating finding to decision on makers.

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 Introduction

• Research must be objective, rigorous and non biased.

• In a scientific enquiry process, one uses prior knowledge and observation to

develop a hypothesis.

• The hypothesis is then tested and a conclusion is made based on the hypothesis
testing which results in new knowledge.

• Research is about an in-depth look at a subject area.

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 Introduction

• There are three components in a research process

• 1. Thorough study or comprehensive acquisition of knowledge or information
about the subject area

• 2. And thereafter a careful examination, investigation or scrutiny of facts

surrounding the circumstance of the study.

• 3. An analysis and interpretation of facts gathered and provision of solution or

explanations in light of the analysis
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 Introduction

• The difference between the manager who uses common sense alone to
analyze and make a decision in a given situation, and the investigator
who uses a scientific method, is that the latter does a systematic
inquiry into the matter and proceeds to describe, explain, or predict
phenomena based on data carefully collected for the purpose

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 The Purpose of Business Research

• The objective of business research is to provide the needed information

that guides managers to make informed decisions to successfully deal
with managerial problems

• Specifically the purposes of research are:

• To generate new knowledge
• To provide a solution to a problem
• To explain a new phenomenon
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 The Purpose of Business Research

• To investigate some existing situation

• To construct a new procedure or system
• To explore and analyse more general issues
• To review and synthesise existing knowledge

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 Examples

Accounting

• Determining the impact of changes in accounting procedure

• For example fair valuation to historical costing

• Deciding the effective ratio of retained earnings for sustained growth

• Evaluating the effectiveness of short term and long term cashflow strategies
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 Examples

• Investigating the effect of budgetary control systems on employee

behaviour

• Exploring the adoption of accounting packages by specific industries

• Reviewing the adoption of financial reporting standards by specific sector

• Explaining compliance of auditing standards in SMEs

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 Examples

Finance
• Explaining the operations of financial institutions
• Investigating the behaviour of stock exchange
• Reviewing the performance of treasury bill market
• Investigating the discrepancy between borrowing and lending rates
• Investigating the impact of required reserve ratio on banks
performance
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 Examples

Management
• Investigating Employee Attitude and Behaviour
• Investigating The impact of Corporate Environmental Management
• Determining Strategy Formulation
• Providing a solution to Information Systems problem
• Investigating efficiency in Production and supply chain Management
• Investigating gender in accounting profession
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 Examples

Marketing
• Opportunity assessment
• Benefits and lifestyle studies
• Target market analysis
• Test marketing
• Customer satisfaction

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 Examples

• Logistics assessment
• Sales forecasting
• Product analysis
• Product packaging
• Advertising effectiveness

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 Examples

• Regardless of the focus of the decision making area, managers must

have accurate information to make the right decision.

• Research process brings about high levels of confidence about the

outcome of decisions

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 Managers & Research

• Managers with knowledge of research have advantage over those who

do not
• Such managers are able to understand, predict and control disruptive
events in an organisation
• For example a new product may not be taking off in sales or an
investment fund may not be paying off
• Knowledge of research and problem-solving processes helps
managers to identify problem situations before they get out of control.
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 Managers & Research

• Managers are also able to read and sift through published research
discriminately

• Such knowledge sharpens the sensitivity of managers to the myriad

variables operating in a situation and reminds them frequently of the
multi causality and multi finality of phenomena, thus avoiding
inappropriate, simplistic notions of one variable causing another

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 Managers & Research

• When managers understand the research reports about their

organizations handed to them by professionals, they will be equipped
to take intelligent, educated, calculated risks with known probabilities
attached to the success or failure of their decisions (Uma Sekaran,
2008).

• Research then becomes a useful decision-making tool rather than a

mass of incomprehensible statistical information.
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 Managers & research

Knowledge in Research helps managers to:-

• 1. Identify and effectively solve minor problems in the work setting.

• 2. Know how to discriminate good from bad research.

• 3. Appreciate and be constantly aware of the multiple influences and multiple effects of
factors impinging on a situation.

• 4. Take calculated risks in decision making, knowing full well the probabilities associated
with the different possible outcomes.
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 Managers & Research

• 5. Prevent possible vested interests from exercising their influence in a

situation.

• 6. Relate to hired researchers and consultants more effectively.

• 7. Combine experience with scientific knowledge while making

decisions.
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 Basic & Applied Research

• Where research is focused to solve a practical problem in an organisation setting,

this is called Applied Research.

• Thus, it is research done with the intention of applying the results of the findings
to solve specific problems currently being experienced in the organization

• Research can also be undertaken to develop a body of knowledge by trying to

understand how certain problems that occur in organisations can be solved. This
is called Basic Research or Pure Research or Fundamental Research
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 Basic & Applied Research

• It is research done chiefly to enhance the understanding of certain problems

that commonly occur in organizational settings, and seek methods of solving
them. This can be referred to as ‘know-how’ activity.

• The findings of such research contribute to the building of knowledge in the

various functional areas of business.

• Such knowledge generated is usually later applied in organizational settings

for problem solving.
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 Determining the Need for Information
Research
• Conducting research studies costs time, effort and money and it is
important to understand when the research process is needed and
when it is not.

• The following factors determine whether research should be carried

out or not:

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 Determining the Need for Information
Research
1. When information is already available

• When the decision maker has substantial knowledge about the area of
investigation, enough information may exist to make informed
decision without doing information research.

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 Determining the Need for Information
Research
2. When there is time constraint

• Research is time consuming and when the discovery of a problem

situation leaves inadequate time to execute the necessary research,
managers may have to use informed judgment.

• Actions sometimes emerge so fast that formalized research is not a

feasible option.
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Determining the Need for Information Research

3. When resources are inadequate

• When there are significant limitations in money, people and facilitates

then research is typically not feasible.

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 Determining the Need for Information
Research
4. When costs outweigh value

• When the benefits to be gained by conducting the research are not

significantly greater than the costs, then research is not feasible.

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 Determining the Need for Information
Research
5. The nature of decisions

• Decisions that have strategic implications for an organisations may

warrant a research work other than a routine operation decision that
have minor impact on the position of the organisation as a whole.

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 Qualities of a Good Researcher

A good researcher should have the following skills:

• Written and verbal communication skills

• Intellectual skills
• IT Skills
• Organisational Skills
• Motivation
• Independence
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 Qualities of a Good Researcher

• Communication Skills
• Communication skills are needed when:
• Applying for funding
• Discussing your project with supervisor
• Negotiating access to sources of data
• Conducting interviews

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 Qualities of a Good Researcher

• Communication Skills
• Designing questionnaires
• Leading a focus group
• Writing and presenting conference papers
• Writing your report
• Writing academic journal articles

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 Qualities of a Good Researcher
Intellectual skills

• These are critical thinking skills:

• Knowledge (or memory): ability to recall facts, nomenclature, classifications, laws and
theories; simple calculations.

• Comprehension: ability to translate data from one form to another (e.g. verbal into
mathematical); to interpret or deduce the significance of data; to solve simple problems
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 Qualities of a Good Researcher

• Application: ability to apply knowledge, experience and skill to a new

situation
• Analysis: ability to break down info into various parts
• Synthesis (or creativity): ability to build up info from other info
• Evaluation: ability to make qualitative and quantitative judgments; to
set out a reasoned argument through a series of steps, usually of
gradually increasing difficulty; to criticise constructively.

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 Qualities of a Good Researcher

IT Skills

• SPSS
• Word processing skills
• Internet
• Spreadsheets, e.g. Excel, etc.
• Database management systems, e.g. MS-Access
• Computerized library catalogues, online and CD-ROM databases of abstracts and
indexes
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 Qualities of a Good Researcher

Motivation

• Are you motivated to complete your research?

• Choose an area which passionately interest you.

• At a very early stages of your research, start attending seminars,

conferences, where you can listen to other researchers.
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 Qualities of a Good Researcher
Independence

• Be empowered, self-motivated, and highly independent

• Research requires self-discipline
• Conduct collaborative research, to learn from others
• Find a mentor interested in your work
• Network with other researchers (conferences, internet, etc.)
• Attend tool courses, e.g. research methods, statistics, etc.
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 Ethics in Research

• Ethics mean a self conscious effort of behavior endeavored to achieve

values that are consistent with what is considered as just, proper,
honourable, decent, fair, truthful, acceptable and right.

• These are morals, principles that distinguish what is regarded as right

from wrong.

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 Ethics in Research

• Business ethics is the application of morals to behavior related to

business environment or context (Zikmund et al, 2010, Business
Research Methods).

• There are many ethical dilemmas in research process, and these arise
from issues of objectivity or accuracy, misrepresentation of research
finding or reporting, confidentiality, conflict of interest and privacy,

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 Ethics in Research
• Major sources of ethical dilemmas in research are the interactions among three key groups

• 1. The research information user (decision maker, sponsoring client, management team,
practitioner)

• 2. The research information provider (researcher, research organisation or company,

project supervisor, research staff)

• 3. The selected respondents

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 Modern Research Practices

• Given the prevalence of internet based information, most current

means of research involve the use of web based tools and strategies

• There is an increased emphasis on secondary data collection methods

• There is movement towards technology related data management

(optical scanning devises, etc)
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 Modern Research Practices

• An increased use of digital technology for information acquisition and

retrieval

• A broader international client base

• A movement away from pure data analysis and towards a data

interpretation/information management environment
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 BIG DATA

• Recently there has been an emerging concept of BIG DATA.

• What is BIG DATA and
• How different is the concept from Research Process.
• How useful is BIG DATA,
• In what ways can the concept be of relevance or hinder the research
process.

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 2.

THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF RESEARCH

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 Flowers are the Foundations of
Regeneration

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 The Building Blocks of Research

• Research activity must be taken with one or a number of purposes in

mind. The investigation must have a definite focus. The objectives
must be explicit and clear

• In carrying out the investigation, it must be done in a step by step,

logical, systematic and organised manner

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 The Building Blocks of Research

• When research is undertaken, it should be done in such a manner to

allow those interested to investigate in same or similar issue to reach
at same or similar conclusion

• This demands rigour. Thus researchers must state their findings with
accuracy and confidence

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 The Building Blocks of Research

• This necessitates that research must be organized in a systematic

process by
• Carefully identifying the problem
• Scientifically gathering data
• Scientifically analyzing data
• Drawing conclusions in an objective manner
• Carefulness and exactitude in design are the hallmarks of rigour.

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 The Building Blocks of Research

• Rigour also means research is designed from a theoretical foundation

• Scientific research must demonstrate sophistication in the

methodology used to gather data.

• These factors enable the researcher to collect the right kind of

information from an appropriate sample with the minimum degree of
bias, and facilitate suitable analysis of the data gathered
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 The Building Blocks of Research

• Scientific research also allows researcher to tests logically developed

claims or hypotheses (testability)

• Scientific research should allow replicability, i.e. similar results

should be obtained in other settings using same or similar methods

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 The Building Blocks of Research

• Scientific research should reflect precision and accuracy.

• Thus the design of the research should be in a manner that ensures that the
findings are as close to reality as possible, so that we can place reliance or
confidence in the results (Uma Sekaran).
• Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to reality based on a sample.

• Precision reflects the degree of accuracy of the results on the basis of the sample,
to what really exists in the universe.
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 The Building Blocks of Research

• The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of the results of

data analysis should be objective (objectivity)

• Conclusions should be based on the facts of the findings derived from

actual data, and not on our own subjective or emotional values.

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 The Building Blocks of Research

• Research findings should enable users to replicate findings to other

study settings (generalizability)

• The more generalizable the research, the greater its usefulness and
value.

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 The Building Blocks of Research

• Parsimony in research means simplicity in explaining phenomenon.

• Research should identify a few critical factors that explain significant

effects of a case.

• The achievement of a meaningful and parsimonious, rather than an

elaborate and cumbersome, model for problem solution becomes a
critical issue in research.
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 The Building Blocks of Research

• Parsimony can be introduced with a good understanding of the

problem and the important factors that influence it.

• Such a good conceptual theoretical model can be realized through

unstructured and structured interviews with the concerned people, and
a thorough literature review of the previous research work in the
particular problem area

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 The Building Blocks of Research
• Therefore scientific research should clearly exhibit
1. Purposefulness
2. Objectivity
3. Replicability
4. Exactitude, precision, accuracy and confidence
5. Rigour or carefulness in design
6. Testability
7. Generalisability
8. Parsimony
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 The Building Blocks of Research

• Scientific research principles are sometimes difficult to be attained in

management research because of subjective issues normally
investigated

• However to the extent to which research design attempt to achieve

objectivity, parsimony, replicability, testability, generalizability,
accuracy and precision, and rigour, we will endeavour to engage in
scientific investigation
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 Levels of Operations in Research

• Research deals with Ideas

• Ideas are primarily Abstract in nature
• For example,
• the idea of doing a specific job well,
• or the idea of making workers happy or
• the idea of no one stealing in an organisation, or
• the idea making customers love our product

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 Levels of Operations in Research

• Such ideas in their abstract form are given names

• When ideas are given a name, they are referred to as Concepts
• Therefore we have concepts as
• Job performance
• Employee motivation
• Control or
• Customer loyalty

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 Levels of Operations in Research

• Research first operates at this Abstract or conceptual level.

• It attempts to understand ideas or concepts
• Other concepts in research include
• Morale
• Corporate failure
• Leadership
• Satisfaction
• Depreciation
• Professional skeptism
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 Levels of Operations in Research

• But concepts must be translated into reality, into practical meaning

• This is Empirical level
• Research also operates at empirical level
• This is where the concepts are defined in practical, concrete real
terms

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 Levels of Operations in Research

• At empirical level concepts are operationalized

• Thus the concepts are translated or measured into actual meanings for
example:-
• Morale is empirically translated into level of job enjoyment
• Corporate failure may be translated into percentage of sales decline or the rate
of debt financing
• Satisfaction can be operationalized as the number of customer complaints

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 Research & Concepts

• A concept is a generalised idea about a phenomenon

• For example when people leave an organisation we generalise that

phenomenon as labour turnover

• When customers are happy with what we offer we call it customer

satisfaction
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 Research & Concepts

• When workers work happily we call it Morale

• When workers receive benefits from their labour we call it Rewards

• In research concepts are also called Constructs

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 Research & Concepts

• In every discipline there are concepts for example in economics there

are concepts in inflation, GDP.
• In marketing there are concepts about loyalty and brand image
• In finance there are concepts about risk,
• In operations management there are concepts in productivity, EOQ
• Accounting concepts include assets and depreciation

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 Research & Concepts

• Concepts like employee motivation cannot be directly measured

• Such a concept when not able to be measured directly is called a

construct

• In business research we measure constructs through proxy measures

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 Research & Concepts

• Concepts are abstracts.

• In research constructs are measured empirically by describing their

dimensions and elements

• Researchers hence work at two levels

• First at Abstract level and then at Empirical or reality level

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 Theory in Research

• Concepts are the building blocks of theory

• Concepts build theory and theories are based on concepts

• When a statement depicts relationship or links concepts, a theory is

built up

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 Theory in Research

• For example, we can link leadership style (concept) with motivation (another
concept) in the following statement:

• ‘transactional leadership leads to poor motivation’

• The above statement is a theory

• Another example
• ‘female traffic officers are less corrupt than male counterparts’ has two concepts –
gender and corruption
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 Theory in Research

• Theories have the following characteristics

1. They explain phenomenon

2. They describe how concepts relate
3. They indicate direction of relationship of concepts
4. They enable propositions or predictions or claims about the relationships of
concepts to be made

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 Theory in Research

• Once a concept is explained one is able to understand relationships

between phenomena

• Once a relationship is established, one is able to predict outcome

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 Theory
• A theory explains some event but also predicts how things relate

• In the traffic police officers example, the theory is explaining how gender relates to
corruption. The prediction is that if all traffic officers are male, corruption will be terrible
(direction)

• A theory might state: price reduction leads to more sales. The prediction is that if prices
increase sales will decrease

• Or leadership style influences organisation performance

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 Theory Building

• Why does research require understanding of theory building

• This is because when confronted with an investigative situation, the

researcher has little clue of where to start

• Prior to conducting research the researcher needs to describe the

business situation is some logical coherent way and theory plays the
role in understanding the situation
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 Theory in Research

• This logical understanding helps the researcher to know what ‘concepts’ or themes
that need to be included in the study

• Theory also helps to understand how the concepts relate to one another and how
they can be analysed

• It enables the researcher to make some proposed claims about relationship

• Theory hence helps to clarify the research situation

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 Developing Theory

• Theory can be developed through Deductive reasoning or Inductive

Reasoning

• Deductive reasoning is where there is a an observed fact a priori

(beforehand)

• For example: an observed fact can be: All traffic police officers are
corrupt
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 Developing Theory

• We may proceed to observe another fact such as

• Jack is a traffic police officer

• We proceed to conclude that therefore Jack is corrupt. This is

deductive reasoning

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 Developing Theory

• In contrast we may develop theory not through the process of

conclusion (deduction) but through observation

• We may observe the conduct of all traffic police officers and through
careful analyse may conclude that the officers are corrupt.

• Here we have developed a theory from no claimed statement. This is

inductive reasoning
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 Developing Theory

• Thus in deduction data follows theory

• In induction theory follows data

• Theories based on deduction and induction help us to understand,

explain, and/or predict business phenomena

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 Theory Building

• We have seen that research deals with explanations, ideas, concepts,

relationships among concepts and direction of relationships,
predictions and claims of outcomes

• Understanding research situation in this way is working at theoretical

level

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 Turning Theory into Empirical Research

• A theory is hence an explanation of relationship among concepts that

enable general universal conclusions to be made about a phenomenon
(situation)

• For a theoretical description of a situation to have any practical

meaning in research, it must be translated into empirical reality or
tests. How is this done?

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 Turning Theory into Empirical Research

• To move from theory to empirical tests researchers use models (a

diagram or drawing) or a ‘picture’ that depicts the explanations, ideas,
concepts, relationships and enable the researcher to make some
claims or prediction about the possible outcomes

• The models are called frameworks or conceptual frameworks or

conceptual models or theoretical models or theoretical frameworks

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 Turning Theory into Empirical Research

• The aim of theoretical frameworks is to translate theoretical

explanation of a research situation into empirical (real) tests

• It enables a researcher to move from theoretical level into empirical

level

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 Turning Theory into Empirical Research

• To do this the elements described in the theoretical foundation are

given some terminologies

• First the concepts are refereed to as constructs

• The constructs are then operationalized (explained or defined)

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 Turning Theory into Empirical Research

• The elements of the operationalised constructs are then referred to as

Variables

• For example gender is operationalized to male and female. Here male

and female become variables

• The variables are categorised or classified into dependent,

independent, moderating and intervening variables
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 Turning Theory into Empirical Research

• The claims or predictions are referred to as Hypotheses

• The directions of the relationships between or amongst the variables

are depicted through a drawing

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 Example of Theoretical Framework
Mkt
Promotion
• Activities

Age
Demand for
Income
Insurance Services
Occupation

State of the
Economy
•
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 Theoretical Framework

• The theoretical framework is the foundation on which the entire research

project is based.

• It is a logically developed, described, and elaborated network of associations

among the variables deemed relevant to the problem situation and identified
through such processes as interviews, observations, and literature survey.

• Experience and intuition also guide in developing the theoretical framework.

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 Theoretical Framework
• To arrive at a solution to a problem first identy the problem

• Then identify the variables that contribute to the problem through interviews and literature
review

• Then elaborate the network of association among the variables

• Then develop hypotheses

• Then test the hypotheses

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 Theoretical Framework

• Literature review forms a solid foundation upon which conceptual

framework is built

• The theoretical framework elaborates the relationships among the

variables, explains the theory underlying these relations, and
describes the nature and direction of the relationships

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 Theoretical Framework

• The elaboration of the variables in the theoretical framework thus

addresses the issues of why or how we expect certain relationships to
exist, and the nature and direction of the relationships among the
variables of interest.

• A schematic diagram of the conceptual model described in the

theoretical framework will also help the reader to visualize the
theorized relationships.
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 Theoretical Framework

• TF should contain the following elements

1. A clear identification of the variables considered relevant to the study
2. State and discuss how the variables relate to one another
3. The direction of the relationship and whether the correlation is negative
or positive should be elaborated
4. There should be justification why such relationship is expected
5. There should be a schematic diagram of the theoretical framework so that
the reader can easily comprehend the theorised relationships
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 Theoretical Framework
• Exercise 5.10
• Develop a theoretical framework for the following situation after stating what the problem
definition of the researcher would be in this case.
• A family counselor, engaged in counseling married couples who are both professionals, is
caught in a dilemma. He realizes that the focus of the counseling sessions should be on both
family satisfaction and job satisfaction; however, he is not sure how they can be integrated in
the dual-career family. Husbands, who are the traditional breadwinners, seem to derive more
job satisfaction as they get more involved in their jobs and also spend more discretionary time
on job-related activities. This, however, does not seem to be true in the case of the wives, who
perform the dual role of career person and homemaker. However, both husbands and wives
seem to enjoy high levels of fam-ily satisfaction when they spend more time together at home
and help each other in planning family-oriented activities.
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 Theoretical Framework
• Define the problem and develop the theoretical framework for the following situation.

• The probability of cancer victims successfully recovering under treatment was studied
by a medical researcher in a hospital. She found three variables to be important for
recovery.
• Early and correct diagnosis by the doctor.

• • The nurse‘s careful follow-up of the doctor‘s instructions.

• • Peace and quiet in the vicinity.
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 Theoretical Frameworks

• In a quiet atmosphere, the patient rested well and recovered sooner.

Patients who were admitted in advanced stages of cancer did not
respond to treatment even though the doctor‘s diagnosis was
performed immediately on arrival, the nurses did their best, and there
was plenty of peace and quiet in the area.

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 Theoretical Frameworks

• Develop a theoretical framework for the following case.

• Once given, perks are extraordinarily hard to take away without

sapping employee morale. The adverse effects of these cuts far
outweigh the anticipated savings in Kwacha. Research has shown that
when the reason behind the cuts is explained to employees, morale
does not drop.

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 Variables

• A theoretical framework consist of relationships amongst factors

• The factors are referred to as variables

• A variable is a factor that changes e.g. age, gender, production units,

motivation

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 Types of Variables
• There are four main types of Variables

1. Dependent variable. This is known as the criterion variable

2. Independent variable. This is known as the predictor variable
3. The moderating variable
4. Intervening variable

• A variable can be discrete i.e. nominal i.e. categorical like gender or size

• A variable can be continuous e.g. hieght or age

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 The Dependent Variables
• The dependent variable is the variable of primary interest

• The goal in research is to understand and describe the dependent variable

• The dependent variable is a variable that lends itself to investigation

• The aim is to investigate what factors influence it

• The dependent variable is hence first quantified and measured as well as those variables that
influence it
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 Dependent Variable
• There can be one dependent variable or two or more dependent variables in a study

• Examples of dependent variable:

• A marketing manager is investigating why advertising campaign is not effective. The

dependent variable is advertising effectiveness

• A manager is investigating how to increase the employee performance. Employee

Performance is here the dependent variable
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 Independent Variable

• An independent variable influences a dependent variable

• When an independent variable is present, the dependent variable is also present

• When an independent variable changes, the dependent variable also changes

whether negatively or positively

• The change in the dependent variable is accounted for by the independent variable
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 Moderating Variable

• The moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent effect on the
independent variable–dependent variable relationship.

• The presence of a third variable (the moderating variable) modifies the

original relationship between the independent and the dependent variables.

• For example the likelihood of students to pass MA 3206 depends on the

number of lectures. But this is contingent upon the student interest in the
course. Thus student interest is a moderating variable
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 Moderating Variable

• Diversity of the workforce (comprising people of different ethnic

origins, races, and nationalities) contributes more to organizational
effectiveness because each group brings its own special expertise and
skills to the workplace.

• This synergy can be exploited, however, only if managers know how

to harness the special talents of the diverse work group; otherwise
they will remain untapped
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 Moderating variable

• Elaborate dependent, independent and moderating variables in this

case

• Research study indicates that the willingness of the employees to

learn new ways of doing things is not influenced by the quality of the
training programs offered by the organizations to all people without
any distinction. Only those with high growth needs seem to have the
yearning to learn to do new things through specialized training.
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 Moderating Variable

Employees‘ willingness to learn, is the dependent variable

The quality of the training program is the independent variable,

Growth need strength becomes a moderating variable

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 Moderating Variable

• List and label the variables in this and the following exercise and
explain and diagram the relationships among the variables.

• A manager finds that off-the-job classroom training has a great impact

on the productivity of the employees in her department. However, she
also observes that employees over 60 years of age do not seem to
derive much benefit and do not improve with such training

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 Moderating Variable

• A visitor to a factory observes that the workers in the packing

department have to interact with one another to get their jobs done.
The more they interact, the more they seem to tend to stay after hours
and go to the local pub together for a drink. However, the women
packers, even though they interact with the others as much as the
men, do not stay late, nor do they visit the pub after work hours.

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 Intervening Variables

• An intervening variable is one that surfaces between the time the independent
variables start operating to influence the dependent variable and the time their impact
is felt on it.

• There is thus a temporal quality or time dimension to the intervening variable.

• The intervening variable surfaces as a function of the independent variable(s)

operating in any situation, and helps to conceptualize and explain the influence of the
independent variable(s) on the dependent variable. The following example illustrates
this poin
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 Variables
• For example

• Workforce diversity influences organisation effectiveness. However this only happens if they
is a creative synergy at the time work is being done. Regardless this can only be done is
managers have the expertise to harness the synergy and in the diversity

• Dependent variable – organisation effectiveness

• Independent variable – workforce diversity
• Intervening variable – creative synergy
• Moderating variable – managerial expertise
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 Variables

• The independent variable helps to explain the changes in the

dependent variable

• The intervening variable surfaces at time t2 as a function of the

independent variable

• The moderating variable has a contingent effect on the relationship

between two variables
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 Variables

• Whether a variable is an independent variable, a dependent variable, an

intervening variable, or a moderating variable should be determined by a
careful reading of the dynamics operating in any given situation.
• List the variables in this example: -

• Failure to follow accounting principles causes immense confusion, which in

turn creates a number of problems for the organization. Those with vast
experience in bookkeeping, however, are able to avert the problems by
taking timely corrective action.
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 Variables

Examine variables in this example:

• The manager of Naming’omba observes that the morale of employees in her
company is low. She thinks that if their working conditions are improved, pay
scales raised, and the leave benefits made attractive, the morale will be boosted.

• She doubts, however, if an increase of pay scales would raise the morale of all
employees. Her conjecture is that those that have extra incomes will just not be
turned on by higher pay, and only those without side incomes will be happy
with increased pay with resultant boost of morale.
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 Hypothesis Development

• Once we have identified the important variables in a situation and

established the relationships among them through logical reasoning in
the theoretical framework, we are in a position to test whether the
relationships that have been theorized do in fact hold true.

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 Hypothesis Development

• By testing these relationships scientifically through appropriate statistical

analyse we are able to obtain reliable information on what kinds of
relationships exist among the variables operating in the problem situation.

• The results of these tests offer us some clues as to what could be changed
in the situation to solve the problem.

• Formulating such testable statements is called hypotheses development.

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 Hypothesis Development

• A hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured (guessed) relationship

between two or more variables expressed in the form of a testable statement.

• Relationships are conjectured (speculated) on the basis of the network of

associations established in the theoretical framework formulated for the
research study.

• By testing the hypotheses and confirming the conjectured relationships, it is

expected that solutions can be found to correct the problem encountered.
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 Hypotheses Formats

• If then formats
• Students who are committed will pass exams
• Employees who are more healthy will take sick leave less frequently
• Directional and Non directional formats
• The greater the stress experienced in the job, the lower the job satisfaction of
employees.
• Women are more motivated than men

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 The Hypothetical Deductive Research
Approach
• This is one approach to the development of a research

• There are seven steps in this approach

• The steps are 1. observation 2. preliminary information gathering 3.

theory formulation 4. hypothesizing 5. further data collection 6. data
analysis 7. deduction
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 3.

The Research Process

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 What Factors Determine Demand for these
Malawian Made Fashion Shoes

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 Like Shoe Design Research Requires
Designing a Process of Enquiry

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 The Research Process
• The Research Process consists of four distinct yet related
phases

Select the
Determine the Execute the Communicate
Appropriate
research Research the Research
Research
Problem Design Results
Design

• There are Interrelated steps in each of these four phases.

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 The Research Process

• Phase I: Determine the Research Problem

• Step 1: Identify and clarify management’s information needs
• Step 2: Define the research problem and specify the research
questions
• Step 3: Confirm research objectives and assess the value of
information

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 The Research Process

• Phase II: Select the Appropriate Research Design

• Step 4: Determine the research design and data sources
• Step 5: Develop the sampling design and sample size
• Step 6: Assess measurement issues and scales
• Step 7: Pretest the questionnaire

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 The Research Process

• Phase III: Execute the Research Design

• Step 8: Collect and prepare data
• Step 9: Analyse data
• Step10: Transform data structures into information

• Phase IV: Communicate the Research results

• Step11: Prepare and present final report to management
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 The Problem Definition Stage

• 1. Understand the complete business situation

• 2. Identify and separate out symptoms from real problems
• 3. Write the decision statement or the focused research question
• 4. Write the corresponding research objective
• 5. Write the research questions
• 6. Write the research hypothesis and/or conceptual framework
• 7. Determine the unit of analysis
• 8. Determine the relevant variables
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 Problem Definition

• Identify and Clarify Information Needs

• Before the researcher becomes involved in research process, managers normally
present a statement of what they believe is the problem.

• At this point researchers assist the managers in making sure that the problem or
opportunity has been correctly defined and that the decision maker is aware of the
information requirements

• Normally what managers state as a problem need to be refined

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 Problem Definition

• Problem occurs when there is a difference between current conditions

and a more preferred condition

• A gap exists between the way things are now and the way things
ought to be

• The problem definition process involves several interrelated steps

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 Problem Definition

• It is important to understand the complete problem situation through

conducting a situation analysis.

• The situation analysis will involve bringing about a better perspective on the
decision makers need, the complexity of the problem situation and the type of
factors involved In situation analysis you study all aspects.

• The researcher then identifies and separates or distinguished measurable

symptoms from actual causal factors
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 Problem Definition

• Once the researcher understand the overall problem situation, he must

work with decision maker to separate the root problem from
observable and measurable symptoms that may have been initially
perceived as being the decision problem

• In most cases the challenge in research is separating or clarifying the

problem by separating out possible causes from symptoms

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 The Nature of Organisational Problems

• A problem is a state of unpleasantness, a weakness in position, an

undesired state of being that subjects would ideally do away with.
• In business and policy circles, problems are not clear cut, well
articulated identifiable objects, but a sense of mix of worries, signs of
stress or distress signals, that are just showing themselves out.

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 The Nature of Business Problems

• Problems are often manifested through a general sense of malaise and

hopelessness or despair.

• These diffuse of worries and inchoate (beginning) or amorphous

(formless) signs of distress are not problems in themselves, but
problem situations that must be sensed or analysed

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 The Nature of Problems

• Business or policy problems are not independent entities; usually

problems are part of whole system of problems and are
interdependent.

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 Problem Statement

• Decision Statement
• A decision statement is a written expression of the key question that the research
user wishes to answer

• Examples:
• In what ways can we improve our service quality
• What things can be done to improve competitive positioning of our new product
• Do our marketing strategies need to be modified to increase satisfaction among our
current and future customer segments
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 Problem Definition

• The focus on step 1 is to clarify the Decision Problem

• A decision problem is also referred to as a focused research question
• Being able to correctly define and understand the actual decision
problem is an important first step in determining if it is really
necessary to conduct research
• A poorly defined decision problem can produce research results that
are unlikely to have any value

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 Decision Statement

• To develop a decision statement, first understand the purpose of the research

request

• To do this question the manager on his thinking why there is need to

undertake research. This might necessitate a separate exploratory research
like in depth interview

• Through this you will develop insight as to what you think the manager
believes the problem is
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 Research Objectives

• Decision statements must be turned into specific objectives.

• Example DS: In what ways can we improve our service quality

• Objective: to identify the key factors that contribute to customer perception of
quality

• Example DS: What things can be done to improve competitive positioning of our
new product
• Objective: determine reasons why customers choose our product
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 Research Questions

• The decision statement should further be reformulated into research

questions
• The reason is to transform the problem in scientific terms
• Transforming statement into question is done by restating the
variables associated with the problem into key question formats
(what, how, where, why, when)

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 Research Questions

• DS: Do our marketing strategies need to be modified to increase

satisfaction among our current and future customer segments
• Research Questions:
• What operation aspects do people believe are important in selecting a
retail store
• How do customers evaluate our retail outlets
• How do customers compare our retail outlets to other shops
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 Hypothesis

• A hypothesis is a testable proposition.

• It is a formal statement of an unproven proposition that is empirically

testable

• A hypothesis is developed in research so that statistics can be applied

to data to empirically test the hypothesis
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 Hypothesis

• It is a yet unproven proposition or possible solution to a decision problem that

can be empirically tested using data that are collected through the research
process.

• It is developed in order to explain phenomenon or relationship between two or

more variables or constructs

• In determining hypothesis a researcher also clarifies constructs

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 Constructs

• A construct is a concept or a hypothetical variable composed of a set

of component responses or behaviors that are thought to be related
e.g. good financial reporting, customer satisfaction
• A researcher must also determine the types of information that will be
required whether these should be fact, predictions or relationships

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 Unit of Analysis

• The researcher must then determine the appropriate unit of analysis

for the study.
• A unit of analysis is the major entity that is being analysed in a study
• The researcher must be able to specify whether data should be
collected about individuals or households or organisations or
departments or geographical areas or a combination of these
• The unit of analysis will provide direction in later activities such as
scale development and sampling
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 Unit of Analysis

• Research area – Customer satisfaction, Unit of analysis are customers

• Discuss the unit of analysis for the following possible research
situations
• Assessing the growth of village saving loans
• Electronic banking and customer satisfaction
• Financial management practices in district council
• Effectiveness of internal audit
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 Unit of Analysis

• Television adverts and consumer buying preference

• Village saving loans and accessibility of loans
• Corporate social responsibility and football
• Short term employment contract
• Credit risk management and profitability

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 Determine Relevant Variables

• A variable is any observable and measurable element of an event that

changes e.g. gender, height, age, income, expenditure

• In determining variables a researcher may identify a variable or an

attribute as a measurable element
• Dependent, independent, moderating, intervening variables

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 Variables

• Dependent variable – is a singular observable attribute that is the measured

outcome derived from manipulating the independent variables

• Independent variables – an attribute of an object whose measurement values

are directly manipulated by the researcher.

• It is also referred to as a predictor or treatment variable. This type of variable

is assumed to be a causal factor in a functional relationship with a dependent
variable
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 Research Process

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 Example

• Situation: Students not finishing degree program

• Symptom: declining numbers of final graduating students
• Probable problem: Students choosing wrong courses
• Decision statement or focused research question: how can students
choose the right courses
• Research objective: to determine why students choose wrong courses

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 Example

• Research questions: why do students choose wrong courses

• How does the selection process assist or hinder choice of appropriate
courses
• Research hypothesis: there is a positive correlation between failure
rate and wrong choice of course
• Unit of analysis: students, lecturers and registrar

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 Steps in Summary

• 1. Analyse the situation, understand the complete problem situation

through a broad spectrum study of the situation

• 2. Identify symptoms and separate the symptoms from the probable

problems

• 3. Identify probable problem through exploratory research or by

studying or researching the secondary data
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 Steps

• 4. Make a decision statement or focused research question which

should answer the research problem

• 5. Develop the purpose of study

• 6. Develop research questions after redefining the focused research

question/decision statement
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 Steps

• 7. Develop research objectives based on the research questions

• 8.Develop the hypothesis, a theoretical framework, a conceptual

framework and analytical model

• 9 Analyse the constructs or variables and how they will be measured

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 Steps

• 10. Determine the research approach

• The variables and attributes and how they will be measured

• The type of information to be analysed whether facts, predictions or
relationships
• The type of research required
• The analysis that will be required statistical and non statistical
• The units of analysis and probable sampling procedures
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 Review of Research Problem

• A problem does not necessarily mean that something is seriously

wrong with a current situation that needs to be rectified immediately.
• A problem‖ could simply indicate an interest in an issue where finding
the right answers might help to improve an existing situation.

• Thus, it is fruitful to define a problem as any situation where a gap

exists between the actual and the desired ideal states.

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 Review of Research Problem

• Basic researchers usually define their problems for investigation from

this perspective.

• For instance, we would ideally like to see zero defects, low inventory
of unsold goods, high share quotation in the stock market, and so on.

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 Review of Research Problem

Thus, problem definitions could encompass both existing problems in a

current setting, as well as the quest for idealistic states in organizations.

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 Research Problem

• Problem definitions could pertain to

• (1) existing business problems where a manager is looking for a solution,
• (2) situations that may not pose any current problems but which the manager feels
have scope for improvement,
• (3) areas where some conceptual clarity is needed for better theory building, or
• (4) situations in which a researcher is trying to answer a research question
empirically because of interest in the topic.
• The first two fall within the realm of applied research, and the latter two under
basic research
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 Well defined problem statements

• 1.To what extent do the structure of the organization and type of

information systems installed account for the variance in the
perceived effectiveness of managerial decision making?
• 2. To what extent has the new advertising campaign been successful
in creating the high-quality, customer-centered corporate image that it
was intended to produce?
• 3. How has the new packaging affected the sales of the product?
• 4. Has the new advertising message resulted in enhanced recall?
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 Well defined problem statements

• 5. How do price and quality rate on consumers‘ evaluation of

products?
• 6. Does better automation lead to greater asset investment per
Kwacha of output?
• 7. Does expansion of international operations result in an
enhancement of the firm‘s image and value?

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 Problem Statements

• 8. What are the effects of downsizing on the long-range growth

patterns of companies?
• 9. What are the components of ―quality of life‖?
• 10. What are the specific factors to be considered in creating a data
warehouse for a manufacturing company?

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 Importance of Theory in Investigation

• The researcher should rely on theory to determine which variables

should be investigated

• Past research on theory development and testing can provide

important guidelines on determining variables (hence literature
review should support conceptual framework)

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 Importance of Theory in Research

• Theoretical considerations provide information on how the variables

should be operationalised and measured (hence literature review
should support conceptual framework)

• Theoretical consideration provide information on how the research

design and sample should be selected (hence literature review should
support conceptual framework)

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 Importance of Theory

• A theory serves as the foundation on which the researcher can be

organised and findings interpreted

• Neglecting theory you increase the likelihood that you will fail to
understand the data obtained or be unable to interpret and integrate
the findings of the project with findings obtained by others

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 Role of Theory

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 Role of Theory

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 Logical Flow of Research Built Up

Literature Modeling Testing the

Review Identification Schematic Relationships
Observations of Relevant Diagram of a between the
Interviews Research Network of Variables
Associations or
Experience Variables (Hypothesis
Conceptual
Intuition Testing)
Framework

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 4.

SELECTING THE APPROPRIATE

RESEARCH DESIGN

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 Research Design

• Research design is the plan of the method of how the data will be collected
and how the data will be analysed

• It is a master plan of the methods to be used to collect and analyse the data

• The decisions in this phase include the type of data to be collected, what
approach will be used to collect the data, how are we going to obtain samples,
what budget is required and what will be the schedule of the activities
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 Research Design

• Research objectives can be met by using the three types of research designs
• The research designs are:
• Exploratory Research Designs
• Descriptive Research Designs
• Causal or Experimental Research Designs
• The research objectives and the required variables and attributes determine which
type of research design will be appropriate

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 Research Design

• Classification of Data
• To select the appropriate research design it is necessary to understand
the type of data to be collected
• There are two classification of data in research:
• Primary Data
• Secondary Data

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 Research Design

• Primary data is raw data obtained for the first time. It is firsthand type
of data obtained through some type of research process

• Primary data is collected using a set of formal procedures in which

researchers question or observe individuals and record their findings

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 Research Design

• Questioning and recording is used to capture people’s attitudes, feelings,

and/or behaviour

• Observation uses some type of electronic devices to record human

behavior.

• Questioning and recording may use or not use an interviewer

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 Research Design

• Secondary data is information that already exists in some type or

format. Secondary data can be obtained from libraries, the internet or
inside organisations.
• Common sources of secondary data for a business
• Sales invoices – customer name, address, price per unit, shipment
point
• Accounts receivables – product purchased, profit margin, credit
rating, items returned, reasons for return
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 Design

• Management reports – trend analysis, competitive intelligence, needs

analysis, customer knowledge information, sales penetration,
• Sales activity reports – customer classification, sales potential,
customer location
• Audit reports

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 Exploratory Research

• Exploratory research is research that focuses on collecting secondary

and/or primary data and using unstructured formats or informal
procedures to interpret them

• Exploratory research designs aim to gain preliminary insights into

decision problems and opportunities

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 Exploratory Research

• Exploratory research design usually do not produce quantitative data.

• Exploratory research is used to discover and classify problems and

opportunities and is not intended to provide conclusive information to
determine a course of action

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 Exploratory Research

• An exploratory study is undertaken when not much is known about

the situation at hand, or no information is available on how similar
problems or research issues have been solved in the past.

• In such cases, extensive preliminary work needs to be done to gain

familiarity with the phenomena in the situation, and understand what
is occurring, before we develop a model and set up a rigorous design
for comprehensive investigation.
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 Exploratory Research

• Exploratory research may be used to develop ideas that can lead to

hypothesis

• Exploratory research does not provide conclusive information

• Exploratory research is a means of finding out ‘what is happening’, or

to seek new insights, or to ask questions and to assess phenomena in a
new light
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 Exploratory Research

• Exploratory research is particularly useful if you want to clarify your

understanding of a problem

• Exploratory research is used when the research objectives focus on

gaining a background information or when clarifying research
problems

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 Descriptive Research

• Descriptive research designs is research that uses scientific methods and procedures
to collect raw information and create data structures that describe the existing
characteristics of a defined target population

• Descriptive research design are used when the research objectives emphasizes
describing or measuring variables

• Descriptive research emphasises using formalised standard questions and

predetermined response options in questionnaires administered to large numbers of
respondents
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 Descriptive Research

• Descriptive research is research that explores primary data by

questioning a large number of respondents
• The respondents are a representative of a defined population
• Determination of research design to be descriptive should satisfy three
factors
• 1.The nature of the initial decision problem
• 2.The set of research questions
• 3.The research objectives
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 Descriptive Research

• When the nature of the decision problem is to describe specific characteristics or

to evaluate some options then descriptive research is appropriate choice

• If the research questions focuses on issues to identify who, what, where, when, or
how elements of the target population then descriptive research is appropriate

• If the research objective is to identify or verify the validity of relationships,

determine differences between variables, then descriptive research is appropriate

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 Descriptive Research

• Data from descriptive research provide answers to information research

questions framed in who, what, where, when, how many, how much, how
often formats

• Descriptive research provide information about the characteristics of subjects

being research

• Descriptive research objective is to portray an accurate profile of persons,

events or situations
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 Descriptive Research

• Descriptive research is quantitative in nature

• It collects large amount of information from members of the target population so

that inferences can be made about the population

• Descriptive research use data collection procedures that emphasises use of

structured questions to which subjects respond

• Such an approach is called a SURVEY

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 Descriptive Research

• Descriptive studies that present data in a meaningful form thus help to

• (1) understand the characteristics of a group in a given situation,
• (2) think systematically about aspects in a given situation
• (3) offer ideas for further probe and research, and/or
• (4) help make certain simple decisions (such as how many and what
kinds of individuals should be transferred from one department to
another).
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 Causal Research Design

• Causal research is research designed to collect information or data and create

data structures and information that will allow the researcher to model a cause
and effect relationship between two or more variables.

• Causal research enable to predict the effect of change in one variable if

another variable changes

• Information for addressing why questions are obtained with causal research
designs
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 Causal Research

• Causal research designs are used to determine causality in

relationship between factors and testing ‘if-then’ statements about
various issues being investigated
• …………………..…………….

• Although exploratory, descriptive, and causal research designs appear

to be mutually exclusive, in many cases it is the complete or a
combination of designs will be used to collect appropriate data
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 Mixed Research Methods

• Triangulation
• To substantiate data
• Study different aspects
• e.g. study micro and macro aspects
• Solving a puzzle

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 Mixed Research Methods

• To reveal unexplainable results

• Aid interpretation
• Use qualitative data to explain relationship between quantitative
results
• Complementarity

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 Mixed Research Methods

• To fill gaps in issues discovered

• Facilitation
• To aid research using another data collection method
• Generality
• To set a case in broader context , to provide the sense of importance

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 4.1

QUANTITATIVE & QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

DESIGN

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 Quantitative & Qualitative Designs

• Methods for collecting and interpreting data can also be categorised as quantitative
or qualitative

• Qualitative research or data can be regarded as soft data structures.

• As such the term ‘qualitative’ can be interchanged with Exploratory research

• Quantitative research can be regarded as Descriptive research designs and Causal

research designs
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 Qualitative & Quantitative Designs

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 Quantitative & Qualitative Designs

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 Quantitative Research

• Quantitative research is commonly associated with surveys or experiments

• A survey is a research design procedure for collecting large amounts of

raw data using interviews or questionnaires

• Quantitative research emphasizes formalised questions and predetermined

response options in questionnaires administered to large numbers of
respondents (structured format)
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 Quantitative Research

• In quantitative research the research problems are typically well defined and
the information requirements are precise

• The main goal of quantitative research are

• 1. to make accurate predictions about relationships between factors
• 2. to gain meaningful insights into those relationships
• 3. validate existing relationships
• 4. to test various types of hypotheses
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 Quantitative Research
• Issues of data reliability and validity are serious concerns in quantitative research

• Skills required in practicing quantitative research are

• Construct development
• Scale measurement
• Questionnaire design
• Sampling
• Statistical data analysis skills
• Ability to translate numerical data into meaningful narrative information
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 Quantitative Research

• Quantitative research methods are appropriate when:-

• Obtaining detailed descriptions of facts and characteristics of objects

or subjects

• To obtain conclusive insights into attitudes, perceptions, motivations,

personality factors, satisfaction, intentions and emotions
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 Quantitative Research

• Comparing differences in markets, products, services

• Testing theories, and models to explain relationships between two or

more variables

• Assessing effectiveness of strategies and market behaviours

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 Quantitative Research

Advantages of Quantitative Research Methods

• Can accommodate large sample sizes and the results can be generalised
to the rest of the population
• Can distinguish small differences
• Ease of administering and recording questions and answers
• Ability to use advanced statistical analysis
• Factors and relationships not directly measurable (e.g. satisfaction) can
be studied
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 Quantitative Research

Disadvantages of Quantitative research methods

• Difficulty in developing accurate research questionnaires
• Limits to the in-depth detail of data
• Limited control over timeliness
• Potential danger of low responses
• Risk of inappropriate use of analysis procedures and misinterpretation
of data
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 Qualitative Research
• Qualitative research refers to research methods used in exploratory research design

• The objective of qualitative research is to gain preliminary insights into research problems

• Qualitative research lack a critical element of reliability and the results cannot be
generalised (or infer data to the population)

• Qualitative research tends to focus on collection of detailed amounts of primary data from
relatively small samples of subjects

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 Qualitative Research
• Qualitative research uses open ended questions for in-depth probing of subjects responses

• Data for Qualitative research can be collected within a short period of time but it is difficult
to quickly summarise the data into meaningful findings

• Data analysis typically involves subjective content and interpretation

• Qualitative research can provide researchers with initial ideas about specific problems or
opportunities, theories, models

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 Guidelines for Using Qualitative Research
Design
• When identifying business problem or opportunity situations

• When obtaining preliminary insights into motivation, emotion,

attitudes, and personality factors

• When building theories and models to explain behaviour or

relationships
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 Qualitative Research
Advantages of qualitative research
• Economical and timely data collection
• Richness of data
• Preliminary insights obtained to build models.
• The unstructured nature of qualitative research enables the researcher to collect in-depth
data about the subjects feelings, attitudes, emotions and perceptions.
• Some qualitative research methods allow firsthand experience with subjects under study.
• Some qualitative research allows researchers to obtain actual behaviours not just
reported behaviors
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 Qualitative Research

Disadvantages of qualitative research

• The sample sizes are usually small and hence qualitative data lack
generalisability or representativeness.
• Qualitative data are limited by their inability to distinguish small
differences
• Data collected from qualitative research lacks reliability and validity.
Decision makers are reluctant to use information that cannot be
assessed for reliability
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 Categories

• There are different approaches to qualitative research. An adoption of

a particular approach is dependent on a field of study
• The major categories of qualitative research are
• Phenomenology
• Ethnography
• Grounded theory
• Case study
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 Phenomenology

• Is an approach to studying human experiences. It is based on the understanding that

human experiences are determined by the context in which people live.

• It focuses on how a persons behaviour is shaped by the relationships she has with
the physical environment objects people and situations

• It attempts to describe the experiences, reflect upon them and interpret them

• Phenomenology usually uses interview technique

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 Ethnography

• Is a way of studying cultures by being highly involved in those

cultures.

• A culture can be a broad culture like South African culture or a

narrow culture like BB football fans

• If one wants to find the culture of government employees, she

becomes directly involved by becoming a civil servant
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 Ethnography

• By being part of a culture a researcher observes behaviours that

subjects may otherwise never reveal

• Ethnography is relevant where subjects cannot express their thoughts

and feelings in words

• Ethnography usually uses observation techniques

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 Case Study

• Case study - a case study is an exploratory research technique that

intensively investigates an existing situation which is similar to a
current situation

• It is an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary

phenomenon within its life context using multiple sources of evidence

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 Case Study

• It is the documented history of a particular organisation, group or

event

• Case studies may involve in depth clinical interviews with subjects. A

narrative description is then developed after the study

• A case study is an in depth examination of a particular topic of study

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 Case Study

• It is conducted when a researcher intends to obtain substantial information

about a topic or an issue
• The objectives of a case study are to identify relevant variables, to indicate
the nature and order of existing relationships between variables and to
identify the nature of a problem
• The advantage of case study is that an entire subject can be investigated in
detail
• The success of a case study depends on the creativity, motivation and
intelligence of the researcher
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 Grounded Theory

• Is a research approach which attempts to find deeper explanation about a

phenomenon

• The researcher tries to explain significant changes or explanations to a subject.

• The researcher investigates by repeatedly asking questions about a subject

• Grounded theory extracts theory from an area of inquiry

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 Techniques in Qualitative Research

• Qualitative research can be conducted through observation techniques

and through interviews
• The following are techniques for qualitative interview research
• In Depth interviews
• Focus Group interviews

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 In Depth Interviews

• In depth interview is a formalised process in which a well trained interviewer

asks a subject a set of semi structured questions in a face to face setting

• In depth interview asks many questions and probes responses for further
elaboration

• In depth interview may be used to reveal unusual behaviour or attitudinal

data
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 In Depth Interviews

• The main objective of in depth interview are

• To gain preliminary insights into what the subjects thinks or believes about a topic
of concern
• To gain insights into why the subjects exhibit certain behaviour
• To obtain comments revealing feelings, beliefs, opinions
• To know the level of knowledge of the respondent about a topic

• In depth interview requires interpersonal communication skills, listening skills and

question probing skills
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 In Depth Interviews

• The advantage of in depth interview is

• Flexible – a wide range of topics can be asked

• Data can be collected on subject activities, behaviour, attitudes, motivations and
opinion
• Researcher obtains detailed data

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 In Depth Interviews

• The disadvantage of in depth interview is

• Data cannot be generalised

• Data lacks reliability
• The findings lack the ability to distinguish small differences
• There could be response bias

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 Focus Group Interviews

• Is a formalised research process of bringing a small group of people

together for an interactive spontaneous discussion on a particular
topic

• It normally consists of 8 to 12 people or participants

• The discussions are guided by a moderator

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 Focus Group

• The discussion format is unstructured

• The goal of focus group interview is to obtain detailed information

about how people regard the topic being discussed

• Focus group interview is the most popular qualitative research

method
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 Focus Group

• The objectives of focus group research are:

• To distinguish between symptoms and problems

• To identify specific hidden information requirements
• To provide data for better understanding results from other quantitative studies

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 Focus Group

• To reveal hidden behaviours, attitudes, feelings, motives and

perceptions
• To generate new ideas about products and services
• To discover new attributes or constructs and measurement methods
• To provide data for better understanding results from other
quantitative studies

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 Focus Group

Advantages of focus group interviews are:

• They stimulate new ideas

• They uncover underlying reasons for particular behaviour
• They allow for discussions on a wide range of topics
• They allow interaction on different groups of individuals

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 Focus Group

Disadvantages of focus group interviews are:

• The findings lack generalisability
• Reliability of data is questionable
• The cost of carrying out focus group is high

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 4.2

Surveys

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 Surveys

• Surveys are research design procedures for collecting large amounts of raw
data using interviews or questionnaires

• The main goal of quantitative survey is to

• To provide specific facts and estimates
• To make accurate predictions about relationships between variables
• To understand the relationships and differences
• To validate existing relationships
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 Surveys

• Types of surveys
• Survey types refer to the methods of collecting or gathering primary data.

• Survey methods can be classified as follows:

• Person administered surveys – these are data collection techniques that

require the presence of a trained human interviewer who asks questions
and records the subjects answers
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 Surveys

• Self administered surveys – a data collection technique in which the

respondents reads the survey questions and responds to his or her own
answers without the presence of a trained interviewer

• Online surveys – administering questionnaires and getting responses

online

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 Surveys

• Researchers must consider several factors when choosing a survey

method. The major factors to consider are:
• Situational factors – budget of available resources, completion time
frame, quality requirements, completeness of data, precision,
generalisability
• Task characteristics – difficulty of the task, stimuli needed to elicit a
response, amount of information needed, research topic sensitivity
• Respondent characteristics – diversity, degree of survey participation
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 Errors in Survey Methodology

• Errors can occur in any survey.

• In a survey errors are referred to as bias
• There are many chances in research where errors can occur
• Errors reduce the accuracy and quality of the data the researcher
collects
• Potential survey research errors can be classified as being Sampling
Errors or Non-Sampling Errors
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 Errors in Survey

• Sampling Errors
• Sampling error is the statistically measured difference between the
actual sample results and the true population results. These are errors
that occur due to fluctuations in the data
• Sampling error can be reduced by increasing the size of the sample
taken

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 Errors in Survey

• Non Sampling Error

• Non sampling error is also referred to as Systematic Error
• Systematic errors are all errors that can enter the survey research
design that are not related to the sample size or sampling method.

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 Systematic Errors

• Non sampling Errors can be traced back to four major sources

• Respondents Errors
• Researcher’s measurement/design errors
• Problem definition errors
• Researcher administrative errors
• All errors create systematic variations in the data that is not considered
a natural occurrence or fluctuations on the part of the respondents
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 Systematic Error

• Systematic variations result from imperfections in the survey design or

from mistakes in the execution of the research process
• Non sampling errors are controllable because they are a result of some
human mistakes in design or execution of the survey
• Systematic errors cannot be directly measured
• Non sampling errors are interactive in nature in that one type of error can
potentially allow other types of errors to enter the data collection process
• Non sampling errors lowers the quality of the data being collected
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 Non Sampling Error

Respondents Errors
• Occurs when respondents either cannot be reached to participate in
the survey process, do not cooperate, are unwilling to participate or
respond incorrectly or in an unnatural way to the questions asked in
the survey
• They include non response errors due to refusal or non contact
• They also include response bias due to deliberate falsification or
unconscious misrepresentation due to mental set or presitege
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 Systematic Errors

Measurement and Design errors

• Inappropriate design of the survey questionnaire, scale measurements, and constructs
can affect the quality of the data being collected
• These can also include data analysis errors by selecting inappropriate analysis
procedures
• They also include misrepresentation errors due to selective perception of the researcher
(presenting the results in a way that the findings appear to support the initial thoughts of
the researcher)

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 Systematic Error

• Faulty problem definition error occurs when the researcher

misinterprets the true nature of the problem situation
• Incorrectly defining the decision problem will make the survey
research results useless
• Researcher administrative error occur from improper execution of
the steps involved in gathering and processing data.
• These errors include data processing errors, interviewer error and
sample design error
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 4.3

CASE STUDY

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 Case Study

• In social research activities are taken to describe and explain, evaluate

certain phenomenon that relate to people, groups, organisations,
communities etc
• In undertaking such research two approaches can be used
• Extensive approach
• Intensive approach

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 Case Study

• In extensive approach data is collected about relevant

variables of a large number of instances of a phenomenon.
• We draw our conclusions by putting together all the
information and calculating and interpreting correlations
between the properties of the variables for example,
consumer profiling of a customer segment

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 Case Study

• The dominant extensive strategy in research is a survey

which is used to collect empirical data from hundreds or
even thousands of respondents
• In a survey respondents provide information in the form of
answers to a series of standardised questions

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 Case study

• The answers are not used to study the development of the

phenomenon within the individual or organisation
• The responses in a survey are aggregated to create
information about frequency distribution and relationships
between the variables under study which might be helpful
in understanding the phenomenon

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 Case Study

• Alternatively a study can use an Intensive Approach.

• In applying an intensive approach, a researcher focuses on
only one specific instance of the phenomenon to be studied
or only a handful of instances in order to study a
phenomenon in depth

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 Case Study

A phenomenon could be
• An event like work place accident,
• People like young upward mobile individuals, or
politicians,
• Process for example recruitment of women in rural banking,
• Political participation
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 Case Study

• In such a study each instance is studied in its own specific

context and in greater detail than in extensive research

• Data is collected using many sources of information such as

documents, interviews, behavioral observations,
experiments

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 Case Study

• Case study is an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary

phenomenon within its real life context using multiple sources of
evidence (Robson, 2002)
• Empirical means first hand observation or study
• Contemporary means current or present or modern
• Phenomenon is an idea or thinking or occurrence

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 Case Study

• Hence a case study is first hand observation or study of

current thinking of an idea in a particular discipline.
• It allows researchers to explore or describe a phenomenon
in context using a variety of data sources

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 Case Study

• The phenomenon could be an idea like

• Ethics
• Corporate governance
• Environmental management
• Organisation development and change
• Gender in management
• Rural banking

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 Case Study

• Civil service reform

• Outsourcing
• Lean manufacturing
• HIV and workplace
• Supply chain integration
• Organisation politics and productivity
• Democracy and the workplace
• Communication process
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 Case Study

• Or the way people use the internet at office

• Production processes and innovation
• Strategy or policy implementation process
• The development of friendship in social media

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 Case Study

• A case study is an appropriate way to answer broad research

questions.

• It provides an understanding of how events, programs,

organisations and processes develop

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 Case Study

• A case can be an individual, organisation,

community, program or process.
• The question is what does the researcher want to
analyse.
• A case is the unit of analysis

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 Case Study

• For example the question can be how do middle

managers make decisions.

• The phenomenon is the decision making process by

middle managers

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 Case Study

• This approach enables researchers to develop theory,

evaluate programs, and develop interventions
• Case studies allows a researcher to evaluate a phenomenon
or theme through a variety of lenses which allows several
facets of the phenomenon to be revealed and understood

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 Case Study

• The phenomenon are studied in their actual settings, or

context i.e. within their theatrical performance as the cases
are happening or have happened or been undertaken

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 Case Study

• However In a case study the scope of study and the context

or environment, or setting in which the study is being
undertaken are not clearly defined as opposed to an
experiment
• Case study strategy answers why and how questions and
should be used when in such question type of research

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 Case Study

• Case study should be used when you cannot manipulate the

behaviour of those involved in the study
• Case study should be used when you want to cover
contextual issues when you believe they are important or
relevant to phenomenon of the study

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 Case Study

• Case study should be used when the boundaries or scope

between the phenomenon and context are not clear for example,
studying how managers make decisions.
• It will be impossible to have a true picture of managers decision
making without considering the context within which the
decisions occur

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 Case Study

• Case study can be used to study or explore existing theory

or challenge an existing theory

• Usually Case study methods are used in exploratory and

explanatory research

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 Case Study

• Case studies are narratives described from different angles

but whose summation is a coherent whole.
• The story can cut across specialisations
• A case study can allow readers of different backgrounds
draw diverse interpretations and draw diverse conclusions
regarding the case

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 Case Studies

• Case studies counter intuitively summarises by leaving the

subject case open

• A hallmark of case study research is the use of multiple data

sources, a strategy which also enhances data credibility
(Patton, 1990; Yin, 2003).

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 Data Sources

• Documentation
• Archival records
• Interviews
• Physical artifacts
• Direct observations
• Participant-observation

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 Case Study

• Each data source is one piece of the “puzzle,” with each piece
contributing to the researcher’s understanding of the whole
phenomenon.
• This convergence adds strength to the findings as the various
strands of data are braided together to promote a greater
understanding of the case (Baxter and Jack , 2008)

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 Case Study

• Hence there is need to triangulate multiple sources of data in a case

study.
• The aim of triangulation is to corroborate (substantiate, verify)
research findings within a study
• Triangulation is the use of different sources of data within one study
to gain or verify a common insight i.e. to ensure that the data is telling
you what you think they are telling you

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 Case Selection Techniques

• Case study can be for a

• single case which would represent a critical,or extreme or
unique case
• or a typical case which provides the opportunity to study a
phenomenon which has never been investigated before

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 Case Selection

• Critical or extreme cases provide opportunity for richness of

data which hence can be used to generalise the findings in a
dramatic way

• Cases are selected on the basis of expectations about their

information content.

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 Case Selection

• 1. Extreme/Deviant cases

• To obtain information on unusual cases, which can be

especially problematic or especially good in a more closely
defined sense.

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 Case Selection

• 2. Maximum variation cases

• To obtain information about the significance of various

circumstances for case process and outcome (e.g., three to
four cases that are very different on one dimension: size,
form of organization, location, budget).

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 Case Selection

• 3. Critical cases

• To achieve information that permits logical deductions of

the type, “If this is (not) valid for this case, then it applies to
all (no) cases.”

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 Case Selection

• 4. Paradigmatic (classic) cases

• To develop a metaphor or establish a school for the domain

that the case concerns.

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 Case Selection

• Cases can be for single unit such as an organisation, or a department,

or individual
• Choice of single case studies require strong justification. The strategic
choice of a case greatly adds to the generalisability of the case study
• Case study can also be for multiple cases with the objectives of
verifying whether the findings in the first case also occur in other
cases and hence conclusion to generalise the finding

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 Case Selection

• Multiple case studies are more preferable than single case studies
• Case study can be holistic where the case is studied as whole
• Case study can also be embedded where sub units of the whole are
studied
• Cases can also be at micro level or macro level or a combination of
micro and macro level

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 Case Selection

• The most popular case studies are for organisations and case
studies include marketing, finance, human resources, MIS
and strategy phenomena
• Cases can also be selected because they are intrinsic in that
the selected case is of genuine interest to the researcher and
the intention is to better understand the case (Stake 1995)

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 Scope of Case study

• It is important to determine the scope or boundaries in a case study,

this can be defined as binding the case .
• This can be done by developing the appropriate number of objectives
• Binding a case can be done by
• Time & place
• Time and activity
• Definition and context
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 Scope

• When choosing a case choose one which will likely confirm

or likely falsify a proposition
• Case studies often end up with a substantial element of
narrative
• A case study must be reasonable in scope

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 Case Types

• Exploratory Case Study –

• this type of case study is used to explore those situations in

which the intervention being evaluated has no clear single
set of outcome (Yin, 2003)

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 Case Types

• Descriptive Case Study –

• this type of case study is used to describe an intervention or

phenomenon and the real life context in which it occurred
(Yin 2003)

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 Case Types

• Explanatory Case study –

• this type of case study would be used when seeking to answer a
question that sought to explain the presumed causal link in real
life interventions that are too complex for the survey or
experimental, for example explanation linking program
implementation with program effect (Yin, 2003)

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 Case Study Design

• The components required to design a case study are

• Problem or issue
• Proposition or hypothesis (this may be or not required)
• The conceptual framework
• The research questions
• The logical scheme of linking data to hypothesis
• The criteria for interpreting finding
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 Case Study Data Analysis

• The techniques for analysing Data include (Yin, 2003)

• Pattern matching
• Linking data to conceptual framework
• Explanation building
• Time series analysis
• Logic models
• Cross case synthesis
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 Case Analysis

• Researcher must ensure that the data are converged in

attempt to understand the whole case.

• It is important to constantly refer to hypothesis in analysis

of case study

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 4.4

RESEARCH TIMESCALE

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 Timescale

• Surveys can be classified by timescales. The time horizones are

independent of the research designs.
Cross sectional studies
• This is a study that collects data at a single moment in time. It is a
snapshot of the current situation taken at a particular time
• Cross sectional studies are time constrained
• Cross sectional studies often employees the survey strategy
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 Timescale

Longitudinal studies
• This is a study that can be likened to a series of snapshots or to a
diary. Data is collected at multiple points in time.
• The purpose of longitudinal studies is to examine or observe
responses or changes that occur over time
• Data from the same sample collected at different points in time

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 5.

RESEARCH APPROACHES AND STARTEGIES

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 Research Approaches

• To summarise the different types and descriptions of

research , we can classify Research according to:-
• 1. Purpose
• 2. Process
• 3. Logic
• 4. Outcome
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 1. The Purpose of Research

• The purpose is the reason why the research is conducted. As such

research can be classified as
• EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
• DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
• DESCRIPTIVE,ANALYTICAL OR EXPLANATORY RESEARCH
• PREDICTIVE RESEARCH

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 Exploratory Research

• Exploratory Research is conducted into a research problem or issue

when there are very few or no earlier studies for information about
the problem or issue
• The aim is to look for patterns, ideas, or hypotheses rather than
testing a hypothesis.
• The focus is on gaining insights and familiarity with the subject area
for more rigorous study later on.

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 Descriptive Research

• Describes phenomena as they exist

• Used to identify and obtain information on the
characteristics of a particular problem or issue
• Answers the ‘what’ or ‘how many’ type questions

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 Analytical or Explanatory Research

• Is a continuation of descriptive research

• Explains why and how it is happening
• Aims at understanding phenomena by discovering and
measuring causal relations among them

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 Predictive Research

• Goes even further than explanatory research

• Forecasts the likelihood of a similar situation

occurring elsewhere

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 2. The Process of Research

• Research process is the way in which data will be collected

and analysed. These can be in the form of
• Quantitative Research
• Qualitative Research

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 Quantitative And Qualitative Research

• Quantitative Research involves collecting and analysing

numerical data and applying statistical tests

• Qualitative Research involves examining and reflecting on

perceptions in order to gain an understanding of social and
human activities.

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 3. The Logic Of The Research

• The Logic of the research is whether you are

moving from the general to the specific or vice-
versa and can be categorised into:
• Deductive Research
• Inductive Research

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 Deductive And Inductive Research

• Deductive research is a study in which a conceptual and

theoretical structure is developed and then tested by
empirical observation.
• Inductive research is a study in which theory is developed
from the observation of empirical reality.

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 4. Outcome Of The Research

• Research Outcome is whether the study is aiming at

solving a problem or making general contribution to
knowledge:
• Applied Research
• Basic or Pure Research

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 Research
Positivism philosophy

Experiment Deductive Research

Survey
approaches
Cross Case
sectional study

• Sampling
Secondary
Data
Grounded
theory
Research
strategies
observation Longitudinal
interviews Time
questionnai Ethnography
res horizons

Action
Research
Inductive Data
collections
Phenomenology methods
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3
0
 Research Philosophy

• Research philosophy is the way that you think about

the development of knowledge
• Two types:
• Positivism
• Phenomenology

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 POSITIVISM

• Reflects the philosophical stance of the natural scientist

• Prefer working with an observable social reality
• The end product of research are law-like generalisations similar to
those produced by natural scientists
• Researcher assumes role of an objective analyst

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 POSITIVISM

• Emphasis is on a highly structured methodology to facilitate

replication and quantifiable observations that lend
themselves to statistical analysis

• Assumption is that the researcher is independent of, and

neither affects, nor is affected by, the subject of the research

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 PHENOMENOLOGY

• Opposite philosophy to positivism

• Argues that the social world of business and management is far too
complex to lend itself to theorising by definite “laws” like in the
natural sciences

• Takes into account that business situations are complex and unique, i.e.
Are a function of a particular set of circumstances and individuals.
E.G. Organisational behaviour.
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 Comparison of Positivist and Interpretivist
Paradigms
Reality .
• Positivist supposes that objective truth ‘reality’ is fixed and has to be
searched

• Interpretivist assumes that the nature of reality is dynamic and

evolving and there is a wide array of interpretations of reality or
social acts

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Researcher – Participant
The positivist sees the participant as an object to be measured in a
consistent manner

Th interpretivist sees participant as a companion and requires

development of rapport

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Values
Individual researchers values are set aside and measurement of
participants are guided by established theories. The aim to to remove
bias

Interpretivist relises that his or her own values affect investigation and
interpretation

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Researcher Language
The positivist uses language that is uniformly recognised emerging from
theory or from what is considered as relevant. There is an imposition of
language in a consistent manner

Interpretivist draws out language and logic of the target participant as

the interpretivist learns more about a topic and nature of participant

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Theory and research design
Positivist seeks to establish causality through experimental methods in order to explain
phenomena and predict recurrence of what has been observed in other contexts

Since there are external variables that may affect experiemnts the positivist seks to
control these variables and the environment
The positivist will go to great lenths to diagonise the nature of research problem and
establish an explicit research deisnf to investigate the problem. Issues of sampling,
measurement, reliability and validity are critical
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In the development of theory the interpretivist seeks to understand the
nature of multiple influences of phenomena through case studies
The interpretivist does not consider that everything that happens has a
cause and that we libve in a determinist universe. There is a notion of
free will in interpretivisim
Interpretivi adapts research designs as she progressively learns through
the research process. She discovers variations among concepts. She is
not blinkered by existing theory
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 MULTI METHOD APPROACH

• Approaches and strategies can be mixed and matched

• Different methods can be used for different purposes in one

study

• This enables triangulation to take place. E.G. Use of different

data collection methods in one study
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 THE HYPOTHETICO DEDUCTIVE
METHOD OF RESEARCH
• The process of research first begins through problem sensing or
observation
• The problems can be sensed or observed by inchoate signs of distress,
or observation of anxiety, or some feeling of uneasiness about a
situation or phenomenon, observed changes in behaviour, attitude and
feelings surfacing in ones environment, communication styles
• The next stage is hence to determine whether there is a real problem

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 Hypothesis Testing Research

• The problem identification calls for preliminary information

gathering to confirm if there is a real problem and how serious the
problem is
• This is done by talking to a few people or customers or a preliminary
reviewing literature
• The information gathered through informal interviews will reveal
factors or variables related to the problem

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 Hypothesis Testing Research

• Next the researcher makes a logical association of the variables or

builds a conceptual framework
• A conceptual framework is the meaningful integration of the ideas
gathered from the preliminary information gathering
• From the conceptual framework, a hypothesis is developed

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 Hypothesis Testing Research

• The theoretical framework formulated is often guided by experience

and intuition.
• In this step the critical variables are examined as to their contribution
or influence in explaining why the problem occurs and how it can be
solved.
• The network of associations identified among the variables would
then be theoretically woven together with justification as to why they
might influence the problem.
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 Hypothesis Testing Research

• A conceptual framework is a network of associations of

variables
• From the framework a conjecture is made about the
outcome of the association
• The conjecture is then tested. Hypothesis testing is also
called deductive research

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 Hypothetical Deductive Research Methods

• Concepts are then developed and defined so that they can be

measured
• Then a research designed is formulated, data collected and
analysed
• This approach is called hypothetical deductive research
method

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 Hypothetical Deductive Research Methods

• The steps in hypothetical deductive research method are

• 1. Observation
• 2. Preliminary information gathering
• 3. Theory formulation
• 4. Hypothesizing
• 5. Further scientific data collection
• 6. Data analysis
• 7. Deduction
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 Example (Uma Sekaran, 2009)

Observation
• The Vice President in charge of Finance senses that the budgetary
process is not working as well as it should. Managers seem to be
overcautious, pad their budgets excessively, and all in all, seem to be
acting defensively. In essence, the VP observes various phenomena
and senses a problem.

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 Example

Information Gathering through Informal Interviews

• The VP chats with a few of the managers and their staff. He finds that
there is much anxiety among the managers that the budgets for all
departments are likely to be slashed. There is also a perception that
the new information system that is planned for installation will take
away from the managers much of their original power and control. A
general notion that the managers who have bigger budgets will be
evaluated more favorably also seems to prevail.

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 Example

Gathering More Information through Literature Survey

• Amused by these findings, the VP reads materials on the
subject and finds that many factors, including the ones
identified through the interviews, are instrumental in
thwarting the idea of effective budgeting.

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 Example

Formulating Theory about What Is Happening

• Piecing together the information obtained from the interviews and the
literature, the VP develops a theory of possible factors that may be
influencing ineffective budgeting practices. That is, a theoretical
framework of the factors that could account for padding of budgets is
developed.

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 Example

Hypothesizing
• From the theory, the VP conjectures the relationships among
the factors, and one of the hypotheses is that fear of budget
cuts influences excessive padding of the budget.

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 Example

Data Collection
• In this phase, the VP collects data from the other managers
anonymously through a questionnaire, on various factors
such as the extent of anxiety regarding perceived budget
cuts, concern regarding the installation of the proposed
information systems, and the like.

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 Example

Data Analysis
• The VP then has the data analyzed to see if there are indeed
significant correlations between each of the different factors
and slack in the budget (i.e., the hypotheses are tested).

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 Example

Deduction
• If significant correlations are in fact found, the VP would deduce (or
conclude) that misperceptions about budget cuts and the proposed
information system did indeed have an influence on the managers
padding their budgets. To solve the problem, the VP may then clarify
the real situation to the managers, allay their fears, and educate them
on how they would all benefit by proposing real- istic budgets.

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 6.

6.1 SAMPLING THEORY

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 Sampling Theory

• Important decisions may be undertaken on the basis of

findings of research

• For example, a decision by a bank to open a branch at

Nkando may be backed by research findings on retail
banking demand around the area

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 Sampling Theory

• If the research findings are based on a sample that is not a true

representation of the target banking population, then the
results will be futile and the investment a waste
• Carefulness and exactitude in selecting members from which
research will obtain information is critical if the research
findings are to reflect any value

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 Sampling Theory

• More harm than good will be done if the representative

samples from a population is not correctly targeted
• The process of selecting the right individuals, objects, or
events for study is known as SAMPLING

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 Sampling Theory

• In sampling we expect that information gathered from the

small sample group will allow judgments to be made about
the larger group
• A CENSUS is a research study that includes data about
every member of the defined target population

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 Why Sampling

• Sampling is used when it is impossible or unreasonable to

conduct a census
• Sampling is less time consuming and less costly than
conducting a census
• A properly selected sample gives a reasonably accurate
result of the population parameters

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 Why Sampling

• Sampling provides a valid alternative to a census. A

census would not necessarily provide more useful
results than a sample
• In some instances tests involve destruction of
elements e.g. vehicle safety test by crashing or
testing the life of bulbs.
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 Why Sampling

• Such cases require selection of a sample to minimise costs

• Sampling may allow collection of detailed data due to time
spent on designing and piloting data collection
• Sampling is required whether one is carrying out a survey
or a case study

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 Sampling Terminology

Population
• Population refers to the entire group of people, events, or things of
interest that the researcher wishes to investigate.
• For example if Standard Bank wants to know the shopping habits of
its female customers, all female customers will form the population
• A population in research is the prescribed segment pertinent to the
information problem

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 Sampling Terminology

• If MRA wants to know the gender of small business owners who

oblige in tax remittances, all SMEs owners will be the population.
• If road traffic departments intends to investigate the average age of
luxury buses, all luxury buses will form the population
• If KFC wants to measure the average portion of its chicken serving,
all chicken servings will form the population

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 Sampling Terminology

Element
• An element is a single member of the population
• If 500 clinics in an audit research form the population, then each of
the 500 clinics is an element
• If 2 million households with prepaid ESCOM meters is the population
then each household is the element

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 Sampling Terminology

• Elements are the components which are being investigated

such as people, college students, products, stores, services,
organisations or objects from which information is sought.
• Elements share a common set of characteristics

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 Sampling Terminology

• Elements must be countable and make up the whole population when

added together

• Elements might include a particular consumer product for example

Ford Ranger, or a specific group of people for example men aged 18
to 34, or households with 5 members or less or specific organisations
for example companies depositing K100 million and above

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 Sampling Terminology
Sampling Frame
• The sampling or population frame is a LISTING of all
the elements in the population from which the sample
is drawn
• Examples
• A roster of class students for the study of students
• Payroll list, Debtors list, Telephone Directory
• The University registry, List of blood donors, Company Labs
• List of credit savings groups
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 Sampling Terminology

• Population or sampling frame may not be entirely complete or current

• It is important however that the population is accurately represented
by the sampling frame. The sampling frame therefore should be up-
to-date
• Generalisation or applying the findings based upon the sample,
should not be beyond the sampling frame. Limits must be placed

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 Sampling Terminology

Sample
• A sample is a subset of the population
• It comprises some members or elements selected from the population.
• By studying the sample, the researcher should be able to draw
conclusions that would be generaliseable to the population of interest.
• A sample will rarely be the exact replica of the population

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 Sampling Terminology

Subject
• A subject is a single member of the sample just as an element is a
single member of the population
• If 35 law firms form a sample each law firm is a subject
• A subject is a member of a sample and an element of the population at
the same time

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 Characteristics of a Population

• When attributes of a population are measured and counted such as

• Height of people
• Weight of people
• Age of people or customers
• Time devoted to study by students/ grades of students
• Size of eggs
• ..most people/students/eggs will be clustered around the mean
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 Characteristics of Population
• If we were to take the measurement of height, weight, study time and age/eggs (variable) and
plot against frequency (counting) we will note the following
• Few people will be very tall and very short most will be average
• Few people will be older and younger, most will be average
• Few people will study long hours and short hours, most will be average
• Few people will weigh very high and very low, most will be average
• Most eggs will be medium, few will be extra large and mini

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 The standard Normal Distribution
The Normal Distribution

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 Characteristics of a Population

• If we are to estimate the population characteristics from

those represented in a sample with reasonable accuracy, the
sample has to be so chosen that the distribution of the
characteristics of interest follows the same pattern of
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION in the sample as it does in the
population

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 Characteristics of Population

• Thus the sampling design and sample size are critical issues
in sampling
• When a sample consists of elements in the population that
have extremely high values on the variable we are studying,
the sample mean will be far higher than the true population
mean

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 Characteristics of a Population

• If, in contrast, the sample subjects consist of elements in the

population with extremely low values on the variable of
interest, the sample mean will be much lower than the true
population mean

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 Characteristics of a Population

• Thus, through appropriate sampling designs, we can ensure that the

sample subjects are not chosen from the extremes, but are truly
representative of the properties of the population.

• The more representative of the population the sample is, the more
generalizable are the findings of the research

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 Types of Sampling Designs

• There are two types of sampling designs

• Probability Sampling
• Non Probability Sampling

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 Sampling Designs

• In probability sampling the elements have a known and equal chance

of being selected as sample subjects
• In non probability sampling the sample subjects have no known nor
equal chance of being selected as sample subjects

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 Sampling Designs

• The results from a probability sampling designs can be generalised to

the target population
• As such probability sampling technique are appropriate for research
questions and objectives that require estimation of the characteristics
of the whole population from the sample

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 Sampling Designs

• Probability sampling is chosen when issues of

representativeness of the sample is of importance for
purposes of inference to the population universe

• Probability sampling is associated, often, with survey and

experimental research strategies

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 Sampling Designs

• When time and cost are important factors of consideration,

non probability sampling designs are chosen
• The results from a non probability sampling design are
limited to the cases investigated

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 Design Methods

Types of Probability Sampling Methods

• Simple Random Sampling
• Systematic Random Sampling
• Stratified Random Sampling
• Cluster Sampling

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 Design Methods

Types of Non Probability Sampling Methods

• Convenience Sampling
• Judgment Sampling
• Quota Sampling
• Snowball Sampling

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 Simple Random Sampling

• It is a probability sampling procedure that ensures every sampling

unit in the target population has a known and equal chance of being
selected
• The probability of selection is expressed by
Size of sample
Size of population
The procedure requires that the sampling units be given a special code
prior to drawing the sample
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 Simple Random Sampling

• For small number of sampling units, the samples can be randomly

selected through simple procedure, for example writing numbers for
each unit and selecting by lottery box or jar
• When the target population consists of a larger number of sampling
units, the selection can be done by a computer generated table of
random numbers to select the sampling units

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 Simple Random Sampling

• The advantage of simple random sampling is that it is easily

understood
• The survey results can be generalised to the target
population, it results in valid representation of the defined
target population

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 Simple Random Sampling

• It allows the researcher to obtain unbiased estimates of the target

population characteristics
• The disadvantage is the difficulty in obtaining a complete and
accurate listing of the target population elements, since it requires that
all sampling units be identified.

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 Systematic Random Sampling

• Systematic random sampling requires identification of all sampling

units
• The units are then ordered in some way such as customer list or tax
payers roll or membership roaster
• The samples are selected according to their position using a skip
interval. It involves selecting the samples at regular intervals from the
sampling frame using a sampling fraction

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 Systematic Random Sampling

• The systematic sampling design involves drawing every nth

element in the population starting with a randomly chosen
element between 1 and n.

• Only the first sample is selected randomly

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 Systematic Random Sampling

• If we want a sample of 35 MPs from a total population of 290 MPs in

parliament, then we could sample every seventh MP starting from a
random number from 1 to 8.
• We can choose the random number is 8, then MPs numbered 8, 16,
24, 32, and so on, would be sampled until the 35 MPs are selected

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 Systematic Random Sampling

• Important consideration in this method is that the natural

order of the defined population list must be unrelated to the
characteristics being studied.
• For example if every 7th MP is a Chipani Cha Pfuko MP this
sampling procedure would not be representative.

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 Systematic Random Sampling

• The same bias would arise if the list is according to gender i.e. if
every 7th MP is a female. This is called Periodicity Bias
• The advantage of systematic random sampling is that it is a relatively
easy way to draw a sample and sampling units can be drawn quickly
whilst ensuring randomness
• It is therefore economic

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 Systematic Random Sampling

• The disadvantage is that there could be hidden patterns in the

data that are not found by the researcher and could result in a
sample that is not truly representative of the defined target
population
• Another disadvantage is that a complete list of the target
population may not be readily available

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 Stratified Random Sampling

• Simple and systematic random sampling assumes that the

target population is homogeneous, i.e. it has similar or
identical characteristics
• There are cases however in which the defined target
population characteristics are not identical

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 Stratified Random Sampling

• In such cases it is important to separate the target

population into different groups that better represent the
differences (Stratified sampling is similar to segmentation
in marketing)
• These groups are referred to as strata (strata refers to
segregation or segmentation)

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 Stratified Random Sampling

• The divisions, or groups or strata can be factored

according to demographics (age, gender, income, social
class or occupation)
• Or according to departments (accountancy, finance,
marketing, business administration students)

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 Stratified Random Sampling

• Or according to revenue or size (Big Corporation,

Medium Scale Companies, Small Scale Enterprises,
Micro Small Enterprises)
• Or according to salary grade

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 Stratified Random Sampling

• The grouping factor or criteria for selection or stratification variable

chosen must
1. Be readily determinable
2. Be related to a dependent variable of interest in the study
3. Increase homogeneity within the stratum
4. Increase heterogeneity between strata
5. Be (usually) a categorical variable
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 Stratified Random Sampling

• The goal in stratifying is to minimise the variability within each

stratum and maximise the differences between strata (mutually
exclusive but exhaustively inclusive)
• Stratified random sampling is useful when the divisions of the target
population are skewed or when there are extremes in the distribution
of population

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 Stratified Random Sampling

• When the groups or strata are decided, samples are drawn from each
of the smaller groups (stratum).
• The steps in stratified random sampling are:-
1. Divide the target population into homogenous subgroups (strata) or
segments
2. Draw samples randomly from each strata
3. Combine the samples from each strata into a single sample of the
target population
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 Stratified Random Sampling

• In deriving samples from the strata two approaches can be

used

• Proportionate stratified sampling

• Disproportionate stratified sampling

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 Stratified Random Sampling

• In proportionate stratified sampling the sample sizes from

each stratum is dependent on the size of that stratum
relative to the defined target population.
• The larger strata are samples more heavily than smaller
strata

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 Stratified Random Sampling

• In disproportionate stratified sampling the sample

size selected from each strata are independent of the
stratum proportion to the target population

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 Stratified Random Sampling

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 Stratified Random Sampling

• Stratified sampling assures sample representativeness

• It give the opportunity to study each stratum independently
and compare it with other strata
• Estimates for the target population can be determined with
greater precision and less error

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 Stratified Random Sampling

• It may be difficult however to determine the basis for

stratification (segregation) since stratification is based on
the target population characteristic of interest
• Sometimes a number of strata (segments) will be developed
which in essence do not provide meaningful results

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 Cluster Random Sampling

• Cluster Sampling also segments the population into groups

just like stratified sampling
• However Cluster Sampling is the opposite of stratified
sampling
• In stratified sampling group members display homogeneous
(similar or identical) characteristics

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 Cluster Sampling

• In cluster sampling however, group members have dissimilar or

heterogeneous characteristics
• In stratified sampling there is more intragroup homogeneity and
more inter group heterogeneity
• In clusters sampling there is more heterogeneity within groups
and more inter group homogeneity

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 Cluster Sampling

• You can think of cluster sampling as the local Universal Industries

Assorted Buscuits where several types of biscuits are in one pack
• A good organisational example of cluster sampling is Task Force
Committees in an organisation
• There can be several taskforces in an organisation. The set up of
different types of taskforces is similar
• But group members for each taskforce is mixed

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 Cluster Sampling

• Each of these clusters of committees or groups contains a

heterogeneous collection of members with different
interests, orientations, values, philosophy, and vested
interests, drawn from different departments to offer a
variety of perspectives

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 Cluster Sampling

• Another example would be football supporters at a stadium

• The rival supporters set up is similar between Man U and Man City
• But members within each fan group are similar comprising a mix of
doctors, physicians, musicians, managers, welders, and students

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 Cluster Sampling

• Cluster sampling is not very common in

organisational research
• This is because the conditions for intra group
heterogeneity and inter group homogeneity are often
not met

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 Cluster Sampling

• Cluster sampling involves the division of the population into

convenient clusters, randomly choosing the required number of
clusters as sample subjects, and INVESTIGATING ALL THE
ELEMENTS IN EACH OF THE RANDOMLY CHOSEN
CLUSTERS
• This is called Single Stage Cluster sampling

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 Cluster Sampling

• Another technique is Multi Stage Cluster Sampling

• For example a national survey for clinics where cluster sampling would first
be used to select the sample districts for the study.
• At the next stage, particular TA areas in each of these districts would be
chosen.
• At the third stage, particular clinics within each TA would be chosen .

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 Non Probability Sampling

• Where elements in a population do not have an equal or any chance of

being randomly selected, non probability methods are used
• This arises where there is no sampling frame or where the researcher
intends to obtain preliminary information
• This is also the case when conducting case research or where non
probability sampling is the only way of obtaining data

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 Convenience Sampling

• Convenience sampling refers to the collection of information from

members of the population who are conveniently available to provide
it.
• Convenience sampling is used during the exploratory phase of a
research project

• Its also used in some surveys

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 Convenient Sampling

• Samples are selected until sample size is reached, for example

interviewing people from a shopping mall
• The purpose for use of this method is to obtain large numbers of
completed questionnaires quickly and economically
• Results from a convenience sample cannot be projected to
populations beyond the sample, as such convenience sampling is
commonly used in exploratory research

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 Judgment / Purposive Sampling

• In judgment sampling which is also referred to as purposive sampling,

samples are selected because the researcher believes they meet the
requirements of the study

• This would be in cases where the researcher believes the selected

samples will provide the information required you select cases that
will best enable the researcher to answer the research questions and
meet objectives
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 Judgemental Sampling

• Purposive sampling is used when working with very small samples

(e.g. in a case study) or for cases that are particularly informative

• Judgment sampling involves the choice of subjects who are most

advantageously placed or in the best position to provide the
information required.

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 Quota Sampling, Snowball Sampling

• Read Quota Sampling & Snowball Sampling

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