UNIT 4

HIST1012
 POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE
THIRTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH
CENTURIES (6 hours)
Introduction
The period from the late 13TH to the beginning of the 16TH centuries experienced
dynamic political, economic, and socio-cultural developments that lay the
foundation for the formation of modern Ethiopia in the 19 TH and 20TH centuries.
Some of the events that shaped the course of history in the region were:-
the "restoration" of the "Solomonic" Dynasty,
succession problems,
territorial expansion,
evangelization,
flourishing and development of trade as well as
expansion of extensive socio−cultural interactions among different peoples who lived in
different agro−ecological zones.
This unit treats those events and shows the relationships that exist between them.
 4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic’’
Dynasty
The rulers of the “Solomonic” Dynasty claimed that they were
descendants of the last king of Aksum(Dil Naod) and hence, they were
“legitimate” to take over state power from the “illegitimate” rulers of the
Zagwe dynasty. As the claim has no historical evidence, the name
“Restoration” is put in quotation mark.
Similarly, the name “Solomonic” is placed in quotation marks because
the claim of descent from King Solomon of Israel is legendary.
The claim has been elaborated in the Kibre Negest (“Glory of Kings”)
that associated Ethiopia with the Judeo-Christian tradition. The Kibre
Negest claims that Ethiopian ruling class descended from the line of
Menilek I, son of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon of Israel. As a
result, Ethiopian monarchs from Yikuno- Amlak to Emperor Haile-
Silassie I claimed descent from Menilek I.
 4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial Expansion and Religious Processes
4.2.1 Succession Problem and the Establishment of a ‘Royal Prison’ of Amba Gishen

Following the end of the reign of Yikuno-Amlak in

1285, a political instability caused by constant power
struggles among his sons and grandsons for succession
occurred.
A letter written by Yegba-Tsion (r.1285-94) to the
Sultan of Egypt and the Patriarch of Alexandria in
1290 reflected the existence of those struggles. The
power struggle intensified during the reigns of Yegba-
Tsion’s five sons who reigned from 1294 to 1299.
The succession problem seems to have been partly
resolved in 1300 during the reign of Widim-Ra’ad (r.
1299-1314) following the establishment of a 'royal prison'
at Amba-Gishen located in present day southern Wollo
where all male members of the royal family were confined
until one among them was installed in power.
Loyal soldiers to the reigning monarch guarded the royal
prison. When the monarch died, court dignitaries would
send an army to the royal prison to escort the designated
successor and put him on the throne. This practice
continued until Amba-Gishen was destroyed by Imam
 4.2.2Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of
the Christian Kingdom
From 1270 until the establishment of Gondar in 1636, the
medieval monarchs had no permanent capital.
Initially, the center of the “restored” dynasty was in
medieval Amhara (today’s South Wollo) around Lake
Haiq.
However, it gradually shifted southward to the districts of
Menz, Tegulet, Bulga, and finally to the regions
dominated by the great height of the Yerer, Entoto,
Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi and Zequalla mountains.
After coming to power, Yikuno-Amlak embarked on consolidating his authority
throughout the empire.
Conquest of Ifat
In this regard, Yikuno-Amlak quickly subdued Ifat, the Muslim center adjacent to
Shewa.
Yet, until the coming of Amde-Tsion (r.1314-44), the center and the territorial limit of
the Christian Kingdom was mainly in present day Tigray, Lasta, medieval Amhara
and Shewa.
Amde-Tsion was the first "Solomonic" King, who embarked on a policy of a wider
and rapid territorial expansion.
His main motives of expansion were economic and political i.e. to control the trade
routes and seize territories.
The Christian Kingdom controlled extensive territories during the reign of Emperor
Amde-Tsion.
 The period also witnessed the expansion of trade leading to the flow of
In the process of consolidating his power, Amde-Tsion subdued
rebellions in an attempt to end centrifugal tendencies, which threatened
the unity of the Christian Kingdom.
In the process, he expanded his territory
 around 1323/4 to Agaw (Awi) of Gojjam ;
 around 1316/7 Bizamo and
 around 1332 Damot; Bete-Israel (located between Dambiya and Tekeze River);
and the Red Sea Coast.
To consolidate the control of the Christian state over the provinces of
the north extending to the coastal areas of Massawa, Amde-Tsion gave
Enderta (in today’s northeastern Tigray) to his wife Bilen-Saba.
Amde-Tsion's army faced stiff resistance from among Ifat and Shewa, which
might have cooperated with the rebellious army at Enderta, led by Yibeka-Igzi in
1320s. However, Bahr-Sagad, the son of Amde-Tsion, became the governor of
Tigray. In 1325, Amde-Tsion campaigned to today’s Eritrean region. After
controlling the whole region, he appointed a governor with a title of Ma'ekale-
Bahir, which later on changed to Bahire-Negash.
• In the southeast, Muslim sultanates paid tributes to the Christian Kingdom.
• In the south, Gurage speaking areas and a few of the Omotic kingdoms like
Wolayta and Gamo were brought under the influence of the Christian state.
• Amde-Tsion was in full control of all the trade routes and sources of trade of
the Ethiopian region in the early 1330s. The consolidation and territorial
expansion of the Christian Kingdom continued during the successors of Amde-
Tsion.
Source: Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in
Ethiopia, p. 133.
 4.2.3 Evangelization, Religious Movements, and Religious Reforms of
Zara-Yaqob
I. Evangelization
Christianity had a long history of expansion. Churches and their believers had been
in existence long before expansion of the Christian Kingdom in various parts of the
Horn of Africa. For instance, in Shewa there were early Christians who maintained
contacts with their distant relatives in Northern part of Ethiopia. Those early
Christians played an important role in the spread of Christianity in several areas.
In the 13th century, Eyesus-Mo'a opened new opportunities of learning for
Christians who lived in the central part of Ethiopia and
later evangelized the newly incorporated areas where the influence of Christianity
had either been non−existent or minimal. The territorial expansion carried out by
Amde−Tsion during the medieval period set an addition momentum for the spread
of Christianity.
Abune Tekle-Haymanot (thirteenth century) played a key role
in reviving Christianity in Shewa, which was followed by the
evangelization of areas in southern Ethiopia including medieval
Damot.
He baptized and converted Motalami to Christianity. The
clergy, under the direction of the bishop in Ethiopia, Yaqob,
spread Christianity to different areas of Shewa such as Kil'at,
Tsilalish, Merhabite, Wereb, Moret and Wegda, and
Fatagar, Damot, Waj and Enarya.
 Religious Movements

A. The Ewostatewos Movement

Monasticism became a dominant practice in Ethiopian Orthodox Church
in the mid- 13th century. The period witnessed development of
monasticism and religious movements of which the major one was the
Ewostatewos movement, named after the founder.
Ewostatewos established his own monastic community in Sara'e (in
present day Eritrea).
There, he was joined by many students and taught until about 1337.
 Among his teachings was the strict observance of Sabbath.
When he was opposed by an organized religious rival group of the
clergy in Sera'e, he fled the country to Egypt. He faced the same
opposition in Cairo by Ethiopian pilgrims.
After Ewostatewos left Ethiopia, the movement was weakned although his followers
led by Abba Absad tried their best to maintain its momentum.
The movement revived when some of his followers such as Bekimos, Merkoryewos
and Gebre–Iyasus returned home from Armenia.
The followers of Ewostatewos soon became active and dispersed to different
monasteries in northern Ethiopia.
The movement spread to areas like Enfraz, northern Tigray, and Hamessen.
The King and the Abun opposed the movement. Hence, the anti- Ewostatewos group
led by the Abbot of the Hayq Monastery called Aqabe-Se’at Sereqe-Birhan was
supported by the Abun and the monarch.
The monarch imprisoned some of the Ewostatians owing to the fact that he feared that
dispute in the church could divide his kingdom.
The clergy expelled Ewostatians from their church services;
some of the Ewostatians were forced to withdraw and settle in peripheral areas while
some of them sustained their movement in monasteries like Debre- Bizen, Debre-
B. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites(15th -16th C.)
The Estifanosites were a movement within Ethiopian monasticism,
called so after their founder and spiritual leader Abba Estifanos.
The movement rose to prominence in the 15 th century and continued
until the 16th century, when it was formally reconciled with the main
body of the Ethiopian Orthodox [Link] head of the movement,
Abba Estifanos, was born in Agame at the end of the fourteenth
century.
He established a rigid monastic organization, which emphasized
poverty, absolute self-subsistence, equality and autonomy from secular
authorities. His adversaries in the monastic circles attempted to
discredit him, but the movement gained followers in various monastic
communities.
• When summoned to the royal court, Estifanos was initially able
to convince the emperor (probably Atse Takla Maryam, r.
1430-33) that he posed no threat to royal power or the unity
of the Church. Later, however, he collided with Zara-Yaqob.
Estifanos appears to have:-
 disapproved of the Emperor’s religion initiatives,
 rejected royal supremacy and authority in spiritual matters and
 refused to participate in court judiciary procedures.
Zara-Yacob took very harsh measures against the Estifanosites
allegedly for their opposition of the veneration(honor) of St.
Mary.
Naod appears to have been more favorably inclined towards
the Estifanosites and to have been instrumental in their
reintegration into the EOC during the period of Metropolitan
Abune Yeshaq.
For their part, Estifanosites appear to have softened their
position; the excommunication was lifted by the Metropolitan.
Despite the importance of the Estifanosites movement for the
history of Ethiopia, as yet we have neither a comprehensive
critical history of its background and development, nor a clear
idea of its real geographical scale, historical significance and
influence.
III. The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob
Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) took several measures to
stabilize and consolidate the Orthodox Church.
First, he settled the conflict among the Ethiopian clergy in order to
create an amicable church-state relationship. In this regard, he made
peace with the House of Ewostatewos by reviving Sabbath in the
Ethiopian church and the Ewostatian agreed to receive Holy orders
from the Ethiopian prelates(archbishops).
Further, he urged the clergy to preach Christianity in remote areas.
Besides, he ordered the people to observe fasting on Wednesdays
and Fridays and get Father Confessors.
Lack of sufficient religious books was another problem.
Thus, the king encouraged the establishment of a library in
every church. This was followed by revival of religious
literature.
He himself wrote some books like Metsafe-Birhan,
Metsafe-Me’lad, Metsafe- Sillasie, Metsafe-te'aqebo
Mister,etc.
In addition, during his reign, some parts of Te’amre-
Maryam were translated from Arabic to Geez.
4.3 Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim
Sultanates
A number of strong sultanates had emerged since the 14 th century.
Trade was one of the major factors that resulted in the rise and
development of those sates.
Trade served not only as a major source of livelihood but also acted
as a major agent that resulted in the formation of Muslm
Sultanes and remained a major source of conflict between the
Christian Kingdom and Muslim sultanates.
One of the strong Muslim sultanates that emerged along trade
routes and became a center of resistance against the Christian
Kingdom until the second half of the sixteenth century was the
Sultanate of Adal.
 4.3.1 The Rise of Adal

After its establishment, Ifat conducted a series of campaigns

against its neighboring sultanates thereby extending its
hegemony over these areas.
It also resisted the expansion of the Christian Kingdom.
However, one branch of the Walasma family, which realized
that Ifat was becoming an easy target to the Christian Kingdom
due to its location, moved further to the southeastern lowlands
and established new and vigorous Muslim Sultanate of Adal
in the highland districts around Harar in 1367. The first
center of this extended Walasma Dynasty was at a place called
Dakar, a place located to the southeast of Harar.
 The Walasma family consolidated its power in the new center,
and began another phase of military campaigns against the
frontiers of the Christian Kingdom.
 The center of Adal in 1520 changed to the city of Harar and
after the defeat of Imam Ahmed; a growing threat from a new
force-the Oromo forced the sultanate to change its capital to
Awsa in 1576/7, to the present Afar region.
 4.3.2 Trade and the Expansion of Islam

Islam spread into the central and southwestern parts of the

Ethiopian region through Muslim merchants and preachers.
Trade served as channel for the expansion of Islam in the
Muslim Sultanates while at the same time it formed the base of
the economy of those states.
The most known Muslim Sultanates during this period were
Ifat (1285-1415) and Adal (1415-1577).
The main trade outlet shifted to Zeila and the old city-states of
Mogadishu, Brava, and Merca were used as ports for their
hinterland. In the meantime, for the trade in the northeast,
Massawa served as an outlet.
With the revival of trade, different towns and trade centers
emerged along the route from Zeila to the interior.
Travelers' accounts and chronicles referred to these towns and
ruins of mosques and residences mark the existence of market
centers, which followed and served the trade coasts.
The ruins that mark the landscape around Jigjiga and the
highlands of Harar and Charchar attest to the market towns
that served the Zeila route. These include Weez-Gebeya in
western Shewa/famous market on the Fatagar-Dawaro-Harar
route, Suq-Wayzaro in old Damot, Suq-Amaja and the very
famous market center Gandabalo on the Ifat-Awsa route.
Gandabalo was largely inhabited by Muslim and Christian
merchants serving the kings and sultans as agents.
Other big market towns include the ones that linked medieval
Amhara with Awsa, called Wasel near what is today Ware-
Illu, Qorqora/Qoreta (north of Waldiya) and Mandalay in
southern Tigray. The towns of Dabarwa, the seat of the Bahre-
Negash (“Lord of the Sea”), and Asmara were the two
important entrepots of caravans in the hinterland of Massawa.
Muslim states had significant control over trade routes that
passed through Zeila due to their geographical proximity,
although contested by “Solomonic” Kingdom especially after its
revival and consolidation.
Map 4: Trade Routes and Muslim Sultanates in Medieval Ethiopia
 4.4 Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates

Zeila was the main outlet to the sea during the medieval period. The ambition to
control this trade route and commodities that passed through Zeila led to rivalry
between the “Solomonic” rulers and the Sultanate of Ifat.
The first recorded conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Ifat took place in
1328 when the Muslim Sultanates organized their armies to take military action
against the Christian Kingdom.
Haqadin Action
The Sultan of Ifat, Haqaddin I stopped merchants belonging to the Christian King,
Amde-Tsion, confiscating the goods, capturing, and imprisoning the king's agent,
Ti’iyintay returning from Cairo.
Made Tsion Reaction
These actions forced Amde-Tsion to wage a campaign against Haqaddin I; defeated
and took him prisoner and eventually replaced him by his brother Sabradin. Both Ifat
and Fatagar came under Sabradin and organized rebellion against CHKdm.
Ifat was defeated and Sabradin was captured during his retreat. As a
result, Ifat, Fatagar and Dawaro were incorporated.
Amde-Tsion required from them annual tributes and freedom of
movement for all caravans through Zeila.
Following the decline of Ifat, other Muslim Sultanates like Sharkha,
Bali, Dara, and Arbabani were also seriously weakened.
It was owing to these developments that some members of the
Walasma moved their seat of power further east to Adal, from where
they continued their struggle. To check their attacks on the highlands,
the successors of Emperor Amde-Tsion conducted repeated campaigns
into the lowlands.
Haqadin II Measures(1376)
In 1376, Haqadin II came to power and refused to pay tribute and rebelled
against Neway-Maryam (r. 1371-80), the son of Amde-Tsion. However, he died
fighting in 1386.
Sa’d ad-Din II Measures
Similarly, the successor of Haqadin II, Sa’d ad-Din II (c. 1386-1402) gained
initial success until king Dawit I (r. 1380-1412) in 1402/3 extended his expansion
and defeated him. Sa’d ad-Din II became refuge in Zeila until King Yishaq
(r.1413-30) killed him in 1415. Since then the area was called "the land of Sad
ad-Din."
Following the death of Sa’d ad-Din and loss of Zeila to Christian Kings, the
Muslim sultanates declined in power.
Sa’d ad-Din’s sons who took refuge in Yemen came back to succeed their father.
Yet, Adal continued to challenge the Christian state and were successful in killing
Tewodros (1412-13) and Yeshaq. This led to intense struggle for predominance.
During the 15th century, Emperor Zara Yaqob gained some
access to the Red Sea.
In 1445, Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay at the
battle of Yeguba. As a result, the son and successor of Ahmed
Badlay, Mohammed Ahmed (r.1445-71) sent a message of
submission to Ba’ede Mariam (r. 1468-78) to remain vassal
of the Christian Kings.
On the death of Mohammed, however, Adal was still strong
and continued its struggle. Hence, the reigning monarch,
Ba’ede-Mariam campaigned against Adal.
Despite initial successes, the army of Ba'ede-Mariam lost the
battle in 1474.
The successors of Ba'ede-Mariam proved weak in their dealings
with the rulers of Muslim Sultanates. At the same time, leaders of
the Muslim Sultanate sought to resolve the problem peacefully.
As a result, Mohammad ibn Azhar ad-Din (1488-1518)
attempted to smoothen relations with the Christian Kingdom.
However, among the various Sultans of the Muslim sultanates,
Emir Mahfuz carried out some effective military campaigns into
the highlands.
 In 1517 Emir Mahfuz died fighting against Emperor Lebne-
Dengel's (r. 1508-40) force and his son-in-law, Imam Ahmed
ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, popularly known as Ahmed Gragn or the
"left-handed" took over the leadership.
Apart from the hostile relations, there were wider socio-economic and
cultural interactions between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim
principalities.
As in earlier periods, trade continued to be the major channel of social
integration.
Also, it had long been the source of friendship, interaction, interdependence,
and conflict among the states of the region.
The long distance trade and local markets served as core areas of social ties.
Relatively, the difference in ecology of the Muslim sultanates and the Christian
Kingdom created economic interdependence, which in due course
strengthened socio-economic bondage.
Merchants of the two regions often moved from the highlands to the coast and
vice versa. It was through such caravan merchants that the social links were
strengthened and religions spread. These interactions and interdependence in
economic, social, cultural and political spheres lay the foundation for modern
Beside the above discussed socio-cultural and economic
interactions, the period witnessed the flourishing of
Geez literature as is evident from the works of Abba
Giorgis Ze-Gasicha and others and philosophies
epitomzed by Zara-Ya'iqob (not to be confused with the
king).
On the Muslim side, literature had developed including
the works of Arab writers such as Ibn Fadil al Umari,
Ibn Khaldun and others.
 4.5 External Relations
4.5.1 Relations with Egypt
From the late thirteenth century onwards, the Christian
Kingdom continued to maintain relations with Egypt,
which was mainly religious in character. In 1272, Yekuno-
Amlak sent an emissary to Egypt’s Sultan, Baybars,
requesting an Abun from the Coptic Church. Furthermore,
both Egypt and Ethiopia continued to act as protectors of
religious minorities in their respective domain. Egypt also
wanted to ensure secure flow of the Nile (the Abay River)
that originated from Ethiopia.
• In the early fourteenth century, Mohammed ibn Qala’un persecuted the
Copts and destroyed their churches in Cairo. In response, Amde-Tsion
demanded the restoration of the churches and warned that failure to do
so would result in the diversion of the Nile waters. Patriarch Marqos
(1348- 63) sent a message to Sayfa-Arad (r.1344-71), revealing his
imprisonment by the then Egyptian Sultan. Sayfa-Arad is said to have
mobilized a huge army against Egypt after which the Sultan released
the patriarch and sent a delegation to the King. Besides, Patriarch
Matewos (1328-1408) delegated by the Sultan, established harmonious
relations between King Dawit and Egypt. The Sultan is said to have
sent a piece of the "True Cross" and in return, Dawitis said to have
given a number of religious paintings to the Sultan.
In 1437/8, Zara-Yaqob wrote a friendly letter to Sultan
Barsbay requesting the protection of Christians in Egypt.
Three years later, however, Patriarch Yohannes XI wrote
Zara-Yaqob a letter stating the demolition of the famous
church of Mitmaq (Debre-Mitmaq). Then Zara- Yaqob
sent an envoy to Sultan Jaqmaq (1438-53) with a
strongly worded letter. In reply to this message, Jaqmaq
sent an envoy to Ethiopia, with complimentary gifts to the
King but rejected the reconstruction of the church.
 4.5.2 Relations with Christian Europe
• As with the Muslim Arab world, the Christian Kingdom
maintained relations with Christian Europe. During the
medieval period, contacts between the two regions were
strongly influenced by the legend of “Prester John”.This was
followed by sustained relations in subsequent decades. For
example, it is stated that Ethiopian delegation was in attendance
of Gian Galeazzo Visconti’s coronation in Milan in 1395. In
1418, three Ethiopians attended the Council of Constance. In
another report, message from an Ethiopian monarch, Amde-
Tsion was presented to King Phillip of France in 1332.
The earliest known message to Ethiopia from a European
monarch is the letter of King Henry IV of England dated 1400
A.D. and addressed to “Prester John”,the purported king of the
Christian Kingdom. The identification of the King with “Prester
John” was firmly established in the fourteenth century. They
even thought that it was possible to liberate Jerusalem with the
help of this King. Hence, during the reign of King Dawit, the
leaders of Rome, Constantinople, Syria, Armenia and Egypt sent
letters to the king in which they asked for support. King Dawit
received some Italian craftsmen consisting mainly of Florentines.
In 1402, King Dawit sent his first delegation to Europe led by a
Florentine man called Antonio Bartoli.
• Alphonso de Paiva V of Aragon received a delegation from Yishaq in
the city of Valentia, in 1427. Yishaq’s delegation to Europe was to ask
for more artisans and military experts. The embassy of the Duke of
Berry consisting craftsmen, Neapolitan Pietro, a Spaniard and a
Frenchman reached Ethiopia during the reign of Yishaq.
• In 1450 a Sicilian Pietro Rombulo, who had been in Ethiopia since the
last years of Dawit's reign and who had previously carried out a
successful trade mission to India on behalf of the King, was now sent to
Europe as Zara-Yaqob’s ambassador. An Ethiopian priest, Fikre-
Mariam and two other individuals accompanied him. The mission was
to Alphonso of Aragon (also ruled as king of Naples and Sicily). King
Zara-Yaqob sent delegates to Alphonso to get political, military, and
technical assistance. Alphonso wrote a letter to Zara- Yaqob and
informed him that he has sent him artisans and masons he requested.
The most authentic pieces of evidence on Ethio-Europe links are the maps of
Egyptus Novelo (c. 1454) and Fra Mauro's Mappomondo (1460) which clearly
depicted many places and peoples. Venetian Gregorio or Hieronion Bicini visited
Ethiopia in 1482. Pedros da Covilhao/Peter de Covilham arrived at the court of
Eskindir (1478-1494) in 1493.
The beginning and continued rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim
Sultanates in the fifteenth century strengthened the relation between the Christian
Kingdom and Christian Europe.
Queen Elleni (the daughter of Hadiya Garad and married to King Zara
Yaeqob) played an important role in the strengthening of these relations.
She had foreseen the threat that came from the Ottoman Turkish who
showed a clear interest to support the Muslim Sultanates. She also had
foreseen the possibility of consolidating relations with and getting
support from Portugal that was against the Turks. In 1508, Portugal sent
an envoy to act as an ambassador to Christian Ethiopia. Around 1512,
Queen Elleni, the mother and regent of Lebne-Dengel sent an Armenian
called Mathew to Portugal. The Portuguese court doubted his
authenticity and was received coldly. The Portuguese Embassy led by
Rodrigo di Lima, Duwarto Galliba and Francisco Alvarez reached
Ethiopia in 1520 and remained for six years. The objective was to
establish a naval port against the expanding Turkish power in Red Sea
Area. The mission was not successful.
 UNIT FIVE
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL PROCESSES
FROM THE EARLY SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF
THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES (10 hrs