Lecture 3
1. Classifications of figures of speech and expressive
means.
2. Phonostylistics as a branch of stylistics.
3. Theory of sound symbolism.
4. Phonetic stylistic devices
5. Graphic expressive means.
1. Classifications of figures of speech and
expressive means.
Proceeding from the popular definition of literature as the creative use of
language Leech claims that this can be equated with the use of deviant forms of
language.
There are two particularly important ways in which the description of language
entails generalization. In the first place language operates by what may be
called descriptive generalization. For example, a grammarian may give
descriptions of such pronouns as I, they, it, him, etc. as objective personal
pronouns with the following categories: first/third person, singular/plural,
masculine, non-reflexive, anunate/inanimate.
Although they require many ways of description they are all pronouns and each
of them may be explicitly described in this fashion.
The other type of generalization is implicit and would be appropriate in the case
of such words as language and dialect. This sort of description would be
composed of individual events of speaking, writing, hearing and reading.
"Register scale" distinguishes spoken language from written language, the
language of respect from that of condescension, advertising from science, etc.
The term covers linguistic activity within society.
"Dialect scale" differentiates language of people of different age, sex, social
strata, geographical area or individual linguistic habits (ideolect).
Words like thou, thee, thine, thy not only involve description by number and
person but in social meaning have "a strangeness value" or connotative value
because they are charged with overtones of piety, historical period, poetics, etc.
Paradigmatic and syntagmatic classification
Linguistic units are connected syntagmatically when
they are combined sequentially in a linear linguistic
form.
Paradigmatic items enter into a system of possible
selections at one point of the chain. Syntagmatic items
can be viewed horizontally, paradigmatic - vertically.
For instance, certain nouns can normally be followed
by certain adverbs, the choice is dictated by their
normal lexical valency: inches/feet/yard + away, e.
g. He was standing only a few feet away.
the author's choice of a noun may upset the normal system
and create a paradigmatic deviation that we come across in
literary and poetic language: farmyards away, a grief ago,
all sun long.
inches normal away
feet
yards
farmyard deviant away
Another example of paradigmatic deviation is personification. In
this case we deal with purely grammatical oppositions of
personal\ impersonal; animate\inanimate; concrete/abstract.
As Connie had said, she handled just like any other aeroplane,
except that she had better manners than most. (Shute).
aeroplane train car normal it
inanimate
neuter
aeroplane deviant she
animate
female
Syntagmatic deviant features result from
the opposite
the deliberate overuse of the same sound
in every word of the phrase.
So instead of a sentence like "Robert
turned over a hoop in a circle" we have
the intentional redundancy of "r" in
"Robert Rowley rolled a round roll round".
G. Williams’Classification Of Expressive Means
Figures by Type with Link Definition
figures which change the typical
Tropes
meaning of a word or words
figures which move the letters or
Metaplasmic Figures syllables of a word from their typical
places
figures which omit something from a
Figures of Omission
sentence
Figures of Repetition (words) figures which repeat one or more words
Figures of Repetition (clauses and figures which repeat a phrase, a clause
ideas) or an idea
figures which alter the ordinary order
Figures of Unusual Word Order
of words or sentences
a miscellaneous group of figures
Figures of Thought dealing with emotional appeals and
techniques of argument
Classification made by German linguist Jochen Lüders
imagery stylistic devices (simile, metaphor, synecdoche,
personification and symbol);
sound stylistic devices (alliteration, onomatopoeia, metre,
iambic, rhyme);
structure stylistic devices – (anaphora, parallelism, triple,
climax, anticlimax, enumeration)
miscellaneous stylistic devices (allusion, euphemism,
hyperbole, understatement, irony, satire, paradox, oxymoron,
pun and rhetorical questions) (Jochen Lüders, 2013)
Merriam Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature figures of speech are
classified into five major categories:
(1) figures of resemblance or relationship ( simile, metaphor,
kenning, conceit, parallelism, personification, metonymy,
synecdoche and euphemism);
(2) figures of emphasis and understatement ( hyperbole,
litotes, rhetorical question, antithesis, climax, bathos,
paradox, oxymoron and irony);
(3) figures of sound ( alliteration, repetition, anaphora and
onomatopoeia);
(4) verbal games ( pun and anagram) and
(5)errors (malapropism, periphrases and spoonerism)
Classification of Stylistic devices
according to Kukharenko V.
Phono-graphical level and morphological
level
Lexical Level
onomatopoeia
alliteration Metaphor.
assonance Metonymy.
graphon Synecdoche.
graphical means Play on Words.
italics Irony.
capitalization Epithet.
hyphenation Hyperbole.
multiplication Understatement.
multiplication Oxymoron
Morphemic repetition
Classification of Stylistic devices
according to Kukharenko V.
chain Inversion
Syntactical level
repetition suspense
One-word sentences ordinary detachment
rhetorical question repetition apokoinu
repetition successive constructions
anaphora repetition polysyndeton
epiphora parallel asyndeton
framing constructions attachment
catch chiasmus
repetition
Classification of Stylistic devices
according to Kukharenko V.
Lexico-syntactical level
Antithesis
climax
anticlimax
simile
Litotes
Periphrasis
2. Phonostylistics as a branch of stylistics
Phonology is the study of patterns of speech sounds. Stylisticians are interested in how
writers might deliberately manipulate speech sounds for aesthetic effects.
investigates the ways in which the sonic properties of a text contribute to the literary
experience.
Stylistic phonetics actually describes phonographic stylistic features of a written text.
This is the way a word, a phrase or a sentence sounds. The sound of most words taken
separately will have little or no aesthetic value. It is in combination with other words
that a word may acquire a desired phonetic effect. The way a separate word sounds may
produce a certain euphonic impression, but this is a matter of individual perception and
feeling.
2. Phonostylistics as a branch of stylistics
A French scientist Verier, who is a specialist on English
versification, suggests that we should try to pronounce the
vowels [a, i, u:] in a strongly articulated manner and with
closed eyes
L. Bloomfield, a well- known American linguist says: "..in
human speech, different sounds have different meaning. To
study the coordination of certain sounds with certain
meanings is to study language."
3. The theory of sound symbolism
Sounds due to their articulatory and acoustic properties may
awake certain ideas, perceptions, feelings, images, vague
though they might be.
Phonaesthesia is the study of sound symbolism, that is the way
in which the sounds of words may be linked to their meanings.
English words beginning with sl- (the alveolar fricative [s]
paired with alveolar lateral approximant [l]) such as ‘slack’,
‘sloppy’, ‘slither’, and ‘slay’, to name a few. For Firth, the sl-
words he mentions all carry negative connotations, thus the
consistency of related meaning allows the inference that the
sl- sound has an inherently pejorative meaning.
3. The theory of sound symbolism
The literary device “euphony” refers to the use of phrases and words that
are noted for possessing an extensive degree of notable loveliness or
melody in the sound they create. The use of euphony is predominant in
literary prose and poetry, where poetic devices such as alliterations,
rhymes and assonance are used to create pleasant sounds. Euphony is
the opposite of cacophony, which refers to the creation of unpleasant and
harsh sounds by using certain words and phrases together. This literary
devices is based on the use and manipulation of phonetics in literature.
E.g. “cellar door”
A cacophony in literature refers to the use of words and phrases that
imply strong, harsh sounds within the phrase. These words have jarring
and dissonant sounds that create a disturbing, objectionable atmosphere.
Example: His fingers rapped and pounded the door, and his foot thumped
against the yellowing wood.
3. The theory of sound symbolism
It is therefore accepted in stylistic analysis that there is no
direct or exact connection between the sounds of a word
and its meaning.
This is known as the phonaesthetic fallacy: the
relationship between lexical sounds and meaning is
arbitrary. As an example, look at the following sentences:
(a) She whispered sweet caresses.
(b) The wasps swarmed crazily.
4. Phonetic Stylistic Devices
Onomatopoeia is a feature of sound patterning which is often thought to form a bridge
between ‘style’ and ‘content’.
Lexical onomatopoeia draws upon recognised words in the language system, words like
thud, crack, slurp and buzz, whose pronunciation enacts symbolically their referents
outside language.
Nonlexical onomatopoeia, by contrast, refers to clusters of sounds which echo the
world in a more unmediated way, without the intercession of linguistic structure.
(vroom vroom, or brrrrm brrrrm )
4. Phonetic Stylistic Devices
Alliteration
a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the
utterance. The essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar sounds,
in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the
beginning of successive words.
Deep into the darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing,
doubting, dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before (E. A.
Poe).
Alliteration heightens the general aesthetic effect of the utterance when it
has connection with sense.
Emotive prose, newspaper headlines, titles, proverbs and sayings: Sense
and Sensibility; Pride and Prejudice; safe and sound; part and parcel, etc.
4. Phonetic Stylistic Devices
Alliteration can be very easy to remember, that is why a lot of
companies and brands use it to name themselves:
Dunkin’ Donuts, Best Buy, American Airlines, American Apparel,
Coca-Cola, PayPal, Bed, Bath & Beyond, Krispy Kreme, Chuckee
Cheese’s.
Alliteration effect can also be reached to make the name easy to
remember and stick out in the crowd:
Ronald Reagan, Jesse Jackson, Michael Moore, Mickey Mouse,
William Wordsworth, Porky Pig, Lois Lane, Marilyn Monroe, Fred
Flinstone, Donald Duck, etc.
4. Phonetic Stylistic Devices
Assonance
deliberate stylistically motivated repetition of vowel sounds that
imitate the natural sound of the same stressed vowel in the close
succession. It often combines with alliteration, rhyme, and other
devices.
I do not like green eggs and ham. I do not like them Sam I Am.
(“Green Eggs and Ham” Dr. Seuss)
Nine nice night nurses nursing nicely (English language
tonguetwister)
Nutter Butter (American cookie brand)
This little light of mine, I’m going to let it shine (gospel/spiritual
Harry Dixon Loes)
5. Graphic expressive means
intentionalviolation of the graphical shape of a word (or
word combination) used to reflect its authentic
pronunciation is called graphon.
So, when the famous Thackeray's character - butler
Yellowplush - impresses his listeners with the learned
words pronouncing them as "sellybrated" (celebrated),
"bennyviolent" (benevolent), "illygitmit" (illegitimate),
"jewinile" (juvenile), or when the no less famous Mr.
Babbitt uses "peerading" (parading), "Eytalians"
(Italians), "peepul" (people)
5. Graphic expressive means
Pik-kwik store
The Donut (doughnut) Place
Rite Bread Shop
Wok-in Fast Food Restaurant
Sooper Class Model cars,
"Knee-hi" socks,
"Rite Aid" medicines.
graphical means do not involve the violations
refer all changes of the type (italics, capitalization), spacing of graphemes
(hyphenation, multiplication) and of lines.
ITALICS
MUUULLLTTTIIIPLICATION (MULTIPLICATION) ("Alllll aboarrrrrd )
H-Y-P-H-E-N-A-T-I-ON (HYPHENATION) ("grinning like a chim-pan-zee”)
CAPITALISATION (Help. Help. HELP!)
CHECK YOURSELF:
IDENTIFY THE TYPES OF PHONETIC STYLISTIC DEVICES:
“…YOU GONNA HEAR ME ROAR”
“TIK TOK”
“boom boom boom”.
“TRRRRRR”
"And I, I, I, wake up and wonder
What was the place, what was the name?
We wanna wait, but here we go again”
CHECK YOURSELF:
"This time, this place
Misused, mistakes
Too long, too late
Who was I to make you wait?”
"Whisper words of wisdom, let it be”
See you later alligator, after while crocodile
So shine bright tonight, you and I. We're beautiful like
diamonds in the sky.
