Navigational Instruments with Compasses

STCW Table A-II/1 and A-II/2

Learning Objectives

After completing this subject, the cadet will be able to:

Acquire Ability to determine the ship’s position by use of electronic
navigational aids
Know how to use modern electronic navigational aids with specific
knowledge of their operating principles, limitations, sources of error,
detection of misrepresentation of information and methods of
correction to obtain accurate position fixing
Electronic position-fixing systems provide an automatic and continuous
position update for ships fitted with a suitable receiver using either a
terrestrial hyperbolic radio navigation system such as Loran C, or a global
satellite system such as GPS.
HYPERBOLIC SYSTEMS
 HISTORY

The theory behind the operation of hyperbolic radio navigation systems

was known in the late 1930’s, but it took the urgency of World War II to
speed development of the system into practical use.
 1942 - the British had an operating hyperbolic system in use designed to aid in
long range bomber navigation
1943 - the U. S. Coast Guard was operating a chain of hyperbolic navigation
transmitters that became Loran A.
Late 1940’s and early 1950’s - experiments in low frequency Loran produced a
longer range, more accurate system
Loran developed into a 24-hour-a-day, all-weather radio navigation system
1996 - United States made a final determination of the future of the system
 Hyperbolic Positioning Systems

The use of hyperbolic positioning systems at sea is declining. Omega is no

longer operational and Decca is being phased out. Loran C, as a back up to
the global navigation satellite system, is to be retained for the time being.
 Hyperbolic Systems Principles

The principle on which all hyperbolic navigation and positioning systems

operate is essentially the same. If two transmitters radiating a radio wave
in the same phase are located at the ends of a baseline, then a receiver in
the center of the baseline will receive the wave in the same phase since
the time-of-flight of the wave to the receiver from both transmitters is the
same.
Hyperbolic Systems Principles
A hyperbola is created
from the intersection of
a plane with a double
cone.
A hyperbola is a set of all such that the
difference of the distances from two fixed
points is constant.
When you subtract the small line from
the long line for each ordered pair the
remaining value is the same.

Hyperbolas can be symmetrical around

the x-axis or the y-axis The one on the
right is symmetrical around the x-axis.
A hyperbola is a set of points in a plane the P

difference of whose distances from two d1

d2

fixed points, called foci, is a constant. F1 F2

For any point P that is on the hyperbola, d2

– d1 is always the same.
In this example, the origin is the center of the
hyperbola. It is midway between the foci.
 A line through the foci intersects the
hyperbola at two points, called the
vertices.
The segment connecting the vertices is
called the transverse axis of the
hyperbola.
V V
F C F The center of the hyperbola is located at
the midpoint of the transverse axis.
 The figure at the left is an example of a
hyperbola whose branches open up and down
instead of right and left.
F Since the transverse axis is vertical, this
V type of hyperbola is often referred to as a
vertical hyperbola.
C
V When the transverse axis is horizontal, the
F hyperbola is referred to as a horizontal
hyperbola.
 PARTS OF A HYPERBOLA
The black dashes lines are asymptotes for the graphs.

conjugate axis
ver
c es

tice
rti
ve

s
transverse axis
center
foci foci
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARTS
 HYPERBOLA SYSTEM CAUSES OF ERRORS

(1) Variations in propagation velocity.

(2) Improper adjustment, calibration, maintenance, installation or
design of the equipment.
(3) Radiated field effects.
(4) Noise or interference effects.
(5) Charting errors
(6) Calibration errors
LORAN-C SYSTEM
 LORAN-C SYSTEM

LOng RAnge Navigation version C

LORAN HISTORY

A HYPERBOLIC SYSTEM i.e. lines of position are hyperbolas

This results from the fact that the lines of position are determined by
measuring the DIFFERENCE in distance from two points.
 LORAN HISTORY
The first all weather continuous operating long range navigation system
Pulsed transmission, “TDMA”
Operational 1958, operated by USCG
Accuracy ~ 0.25 to 1 mile Repeatable ~ 18-90 m
Horizontal navigation
Enjoyed widespread use for maritime navigation
625’+ tall towers at 400+ kW
Loran Coverage Worldwide
 LORAN System
The LORAN (LOng RAnge
Navigation) system was used until
the early 1990s.
It has now been superseded by the GPS
system.

In the LORAN system, hyperbolas are used

onboard a ship to determine its location.
LORAN System

The onboard computer

converts the time difference
in reception of these signals
into a distance difference
d(P, A) – d(P, B)
LORAN System

From the definition of a

hyperbola, this locates
the ship on one branch
of a hyperbola with foci at
A and B.
LORAN System
The same procedure is
carried out with two other
radio stations at C and D.

This locates the ship on

a second hyperbola.
 LORAN C

One station is referred to as

the Master and the others as
Slaves
 W Master / Slave
X

M • M is the master station.

Z • W, X, Y and Z are known as
secondary stations (or slaves).
Y
One station is referred to as
the Master and the others as
Slaves
 LORAN C

At least two lines of position are

required for a position fix thus
more than one slave is required
A useful property of the hyperbola
is that its tangent at any point
bisects the angle subtended by the
line joining the two foci
Exercise: Use this property to
determine where the best geometry
occurs (LOP at 90º)
 How do we determine the time
difference?
Each station, starting with the
Master, transmits a series of pulses
with the following shape:
This pulse has a bandwidth of about
20kHz
Loran C Pulses

0 50 100 150 200

T i m i n g s f r o m 3 r d z e r o - c r o s s i n g ( 3 0 S )
LORAN-C BLOCK DIAGRAM
 LORAN C
Each station transmits a series of eight of these pulses
Pulse separation is 1000μs (1ms)

Note: In most chains the master transmits a ninth pulse after 2000μs.
This can be used to indicate the status or integrity of the chain’s
signals
LORAN C

How do we identify the pulses from each station?

The stations transmit their signals in sequence. The delay between

signals from each station is such that the signal from the previous
transmission is out of the coverage area before the next is sent.

Thus they always appear in the same order

 LORAN C Chains
A group consisting of a Master
and up to four slaves is called a
chain
Each chain is identified by a Group
Repetition Rate (GRI) which is the
time between transmissions from
the master.
 LORAN C Chains

Each slave transmits its pulse train

at a specified interval after the
master has transmitted.
This is called the emission delay
(ED) and is made up of the master-
slave time (MS) and a coding delay
(CD)
 LORAN C Transmitters
Due to the long distances covered by each LORAN C chain, the power
transmitted must be high (0.5 to 4 MW)
Propagation is by ground wave and thus has to be vertically polarized
Antenna therefore is a vertical mast (ideally a quarter wavelength long
(3km) (10,000 ft.)
Not very practical!!
 LORAN C Antennas
Antennas are typically about 400m high
To improve the current flow, many are “top loaded”
They are still not very efficient (~10%)
 LORAN C Antennas

“Top loaded” antenna with

ground plane
 LORAN C Receivers

Receivers require a data base which provides

the location (Lat/Lon) of the Master and Slave stations
the GRI of the chains to be used
the Time Delays for the individual stations
The LORAN C signal travels both by ground wave and sky wave
grsky wave does ound wave gives stable, reliable timing
not due to the variable nature of the ionosphere
ground wave is attenuated more and hence is weaker and can be contaminated by the
sky wave
LORAN C Receivers

Since sky wave is always delayed by a

minimum of 30μs, the positive-going
zero crossover of the third cycle of
the ground wave is used for timing
 STCW Table A-II/1
LORAN C Receivers
Problems to be solved by receiver
Signals strength may vary by 120dB
Large dynamic range required
Noise at LF can be very high due to long range propagation of
interference (e.g. lightning in tropics)
Signal to noise ratio can be – 20 dB
 STCW Table A-II/1
LORAN C Receivers
Receiver Operation:
Searches r pulses using known GRI
PLL locks for Masteon to carrier to generate master clock
Locks on to slave pulses
Measures Master/slave time interval and subtracts the Emission
Delay (ED)
Calculates the distances and position
 LORAN C

Integrity
Monitors are installed throughout the LORAN C coverage area
These monitors adjust the transmitter timing to compensate for
changing propagation conditions
If excessive errors are detected, the master transmitter is commanded
to “blink” the ninth pulse off and on to indicate which station is
unreliable
For airborne use, this can be done within 10 seconds of detection
STCW Table A-II/1
 STCW Table A-II/1

Coding Delay
The coding delay is such that the ship will always receive the master
station pulse first, then W pulse, then X pulse then Y pulse and finally Z
pulse.
The coding delay also is such that the pulses do not overlap as they
are received.
After a short interval of between one twentieth to one tenth of a
second, the master station transmits another set of pulses and the
cycle repeats.
 STCW Table A-II/1

Ninth Pulse

It enables the Loran receiver to identify the master station.

It is used to transmit warnings if any station is not transmitting

correctly. The warnings trigger alarms in the Loran receiver.
 STCW Table A-II/1

Time Difference Measurement

Pulse matching
Cycle matching
 STCW Table A-II/1

Group Repetition Interval

Each chain sends its pulses at a specified Group Repetition Interval
(GRI).
There are several different intervals. Each is a few hundreds of
microseconds less than 50,000, 60,000, 80,000, 90,000 or 100,000 
seconds.
Examples;
49900  sec known as Station 4990
59300  sec known as Station 5930
 STCW Table A-II/1

Time Difference Measurement

Uses the third cycle of the received pulse because;
The start of the received pulse may be too weak to be heard
The master and secondary signals may not be received at the
same strength.
It is possible to accurately identify the time when the third cycle
ends and time this point.
This part of the pulse arrives at the ship before there can be any
sky wave interference.
 STCW Table A-II/1

Accuracy
The accuracy of the Loran system depends upon:
The accuracy of measuring the timing delays (0.1  sec).
The angle between the Loran lines of position (LOP).
The position of the ship in the Loran coverage area, that is
whether the position is near the base line or the base line
extension.
 STCW Table A-II/1
LORAN C Accuracy

Absolute Accuracy depends on Error Sources

geometry Variation in propagation speed
0.1 to 0.25NM (land vs water, type of terrain)
Repeatability Changes in signal strength
20 to 100m
 STCW Table A-II/1

Major sources of uncertainty

Noise
Thermal & atmospheric noise
Precipitation static
Transmitter jitter (100-500 ns limit)
Variation of propagation delay
Distance dependent (severe case: 500 m peak to peak)
Generally slowly varying in time
 STCW Table A-II/1

Major sources of uncertainty

Interference (often mitigated by processing)

Skywave
Crossrate
CW & RFI
Reradiation
Large metallic elements (i.e. bridges)
Distortion about buildings
 STCW Table A-II/1
Weather Related Noise:
Skywave
Atmospheric
Interference
P Static

At Receiver:
Propagation Induced Errors Crossrate, RFI,
Transmitter (Variations in Phase, ECD, etc.) Dynamics etc.
Issues

Noise Interference (often mitigated by

Thermal & atmospheric noise processing)
Precipitation static Skywave
Crossrate
Transmitter jitter (100-500 ns limit)
CW & RFI
Variation of propagation delay
Reradiation
Distance dependent (severe case:
500 m peak to peak) Large metallic elements (i.e.
bridges)
Generally slowly varying in time
Distortion about buildings
 STCW Table A-II/1

Additional Secondary Factor (ASF)

The Latitude/Longitude computation in many receivers is based upon
a pure seawater propagation path.
Over land distances signals travels at a slower speed.
For those receivers that accommodate the correction it is called an
Additional Secondary Factor (ASF) correction, and this is applied
automatically when the receiver computes the latitude and longitude.
HOW TO OPERATE
LORAN-C
 STCW Table A-II/1

Connect unit and power up as normal.

Allow unit to acquire satellites and display a stable position fix. (3D displayed on
screen).

Select LOP SETUP form MAIN MENU.

Change [LAT/LON] to [LC LOP].

Using LORAN C chart from owners manual enter proper GRI Chain information into
[LORANC:] (Ex: 7980)
 STCW Table A-II/1

Using LORAN C charts from owners manual, enter secondary numbers (TD’s)
located next to the GRI number on the GP 30/35 screen. NOTE: You must
determine the local area numbers, i.e. where the boat is located and use the
numbers from the chart that are closest to, but under, the local area
numbers. (EX. Local numbers are 14445.6 and 45435.6, select 11 and 43 from
chart an input into unit, located on same line as the LORAN C: information.)
 STCW Table A-II/1

• Display NAVIGATION SCREEN on GP‐3X.

• Position vessel at a known LORAN C location for reference.
• Use LORAN C, paper chart or other source to derive LORAN numbers for
reference.
• Compare first number of GP‐3X to LORAN reference number and subtract
the two numbers.
• Input the difference of the first two numbers into LOP1 on the LOP SETUP
menu observing the +/‐ (change accordingly.)
 STCW Table A-II/1

Follow the above two sections to compare the second set of numbers
and input into LOP2
on the LOP SETUP menu.
Display the NAVIGATION SCREEN to confirm operations. (numbers
should match)
Enter Waypoints, Routes, Etc. as normal.
eLoran System
 STCW Table A-II/1

eLoran Overview
This Enhanced Loran (eLoran) Definition Document has been published
by the International Loran Association to provide a high-level definition
of eLoran for policy makers, service providers, and users. It was
developed in November 2006 at the United States Coast Guard
Navigation Center by an international team of authors.
 STCW Table A-II/1

What is eLoran System?

eLoran meets a set of worldwide standards and operates wholly
independently of GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, or any future GNSS. Each
user’s eLoran receiver will be operable in all regions where an eLoran
service is provided. eLoran receivers shall work automatically, with
minimal user input.
 STCW Table A-II/1

eLoran
Enhanced Loran, or eLoran, is independent of GPS but fully
compatible in its positioning and timing information, and its failure
modes are very different.
eLoran is based on the existing low frequency Loran-C infrastructures
that exist today in the United States, Europe, and Far East, and in fact
throughout much of the northern hemisphere.
It is an internationally recognized positioning and timing service, the
latest evolution of the low frequency long-range navigation (Loran-C)
radio navigation system.
 STCW Table A-II/1

eLoran
Why eLoran?
GPS is vulnerable to disruption, and it doesn't work everywhere -
entering a tunnel or parking garage or even traveling down a narrow
city street: the navigation system generally alerts to "loss of satellite
reception."
Some interruptions of cell-phone operations or losses of other
services for no apparent reason have been the result of GNSS
interference.
 STCW Table A-II/1
eLoran
Perhaps the most exciting changes from Loran-C to eLoran are the new operating
concepts.
All transmitters are timed directly to UTC, so that a user may use all eLoran signals
in view and may combine them with GNSS signals for robust position and time
solutions.
Each transmitter includes a messaging channel; this is an in-band signaling channel
that allows the eLoran signal to also carry information to improve the user's
solution.
Very much like GPS this messaging channel provides transmitter identification, time
of transmission, differential corrections, and authentication and integrity signals.
STCW Table A-II/1
 STCW Table A-II/1
eLoran vs Loran-C

The principal difference between eLoran and traditional

Loran-C is the addition of a data channel on the transmitted
signal. This conveys application-specific corrections, warnings,
and signal integrity information to the user’s receiver.
 STCW Table A-II/1
eLoran vs Loran-C
The principal difference between the eLoran transmitted signal and the
traditional Loran-C signal is the addition of a data channel. The data
channel conveys corrections, warnings, and signal integrity information
to the user’s receiver via the Loran transmission. The data transmitted
may not be needed for all applications but will include at a minimum:

The identity of the station; an almanac of Loran transmitting and

differential monitor sites;
 STCW Table A-II/1

Absolute time based on the Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)

scale; leap-second offsets between eLoran system time and UTC;
Warnings of anomalous radio propagation conditions including
early sky waves; warnings of signal failures, aimed at maximizing
the integrity of the system;
Messages that allow users to authenticate the eLoran
transmissions; official-use only messages;
Differential Loran corrections, to maximize accuracy for maritime
and timing users; and
Differential GNSS corrections.
 STCW Table A-II/1
Analog Board DSP
Loran Interface
Board
Enhanced Loran Rubidium

Receiver
Main
Board Single Board
Computer

Power
Supply

Front Back
 STCW Table A-II/1
eLoran Accuracy
eLoran’s enhanced accuracy, availability, integrity and continuity meets the
requirements for aviation non-precision instrument approaches, maritime
harbor entrance and approach maneuvers, land-mobile vehicle navigation,
and location-based services. It also allows absolute UTC time to be recovered
with an accuracy of 50 nanoseconds as well as meeting the Stratum 1
frequency standard needed by telecommunications users.
STCW Table A-II/1
Enhanced Loran (eLoran)

Next generation of Loran

Provides changes to improve accuracy, reliability, integrity, availability
Governmental Policy changes (prop. delay (ASF) tables)
Operational changes (TOT control)
Transmitter equipment (control, Cs clock, etc,)
Data Channel (integrity, dLoran, timing)
User equipment (All in view receiver, H field antenna)
These changes are or are being implemented
 STCW Table A-II/1
Why have Loran and GNSS
Relying more and more on GNSS for safety & economic infrastructure
Timing for cell tower, shipping, aviation, etc.
Concerns about outage or unavailability of GNSS
reduce operational capability
Loran has dissimilar characteristics
Signal power, frequency, characteristics
Failure modes independent from GNSS
Loran has similar outputs
RNAV (lat,lon, time) - seamless to user
Could provide similar operational capabilities
 STCW Table A-II/1

Primary Areas of Interest

Maritime
Ocean & Coastal Confluence Zone*
Harbor Entrance Approach (HEA)
Timing & Frequency
< 50 ns timing accuracy (USNO)
Stratum 1 frequency source (10-11)*
 STCW Table A-II/1

Loran vs. eLoran: Technical differences

Data channel
Time of transmission control
All stations synchronized to UTC, hence easier ranging
Position domain errors generally lower
SAM control minimize error at 1 locale
Transmitter clock
Improved clocks (already installed)
Improved algorithms/control loops
Tighter tolerances
 STCW Table A-II/1
Enhanced Loran - Loran Data Channel
Pulse position modulation on Loran signal
18.8 to 31.6 baud per channel, up to 4 channels on dual rated
station
Time of Day, Leap Seconds
Differential Loran corrections for temporal variations in phase
Improves accuracy for harbor entrance to 10 m (95%)
Requires harbor survey for spatial variations
Comparable improvement in timing accuracy
Stanford developing authentication methodology
Authentication messages transmitted from Middletown, CA
 Current Loran Data Channel Coverage
(Time of Day only except Seneca & Middletown)
Number of stations above 55 dB re 1 uv/m
50

Authenticatio
+ George
n(Stanford) Differential
45
+ Gillette Corrections
+ Seneca

40 + Dana
+ Middletown

35

+ Las Cruces
+ Grangevlle
30

+ Jupiter

25
-120 -110 -100 -90 -80 -70 -60
Differential Loran

Map 8

Spatial ASF 4

Z
2

Differences 0
6

4
1

TOA
0.8
0.6
2 0.4
0.2
Y 0 0
X

ASF (TOA) Variation

 STCW Table A-II/1

Enhanced Loran – GPS Independence

Currently 5071 Cesiums steered using GPS

If GPS lost, coasts for a few weeks on Cesiums, then UTC sync maintained
using Loran signals (as is done in Europe & Russia)
LSU investigating alternative to GPS for primary source of UTC
Including but not limited to TWSTT
Final solution is Kalman filter using TWSTT (or equivalent), GPS, & Loran
Sub-nanosecond level not needed for Loran but paper clock of 87 5071’s; 3
each 29 remote sites compared at this level is national asset
 STCW Table A-II/1

IRIG-B
Enhanced Loran
LORAN
Timing Receiver
GPS
STCW Table A-II/1
eLoran Receiver
Timing Receivers Navigation Receivers
 STCW Table A-II/1
Analog Board DSP
Loran Interface
Board
Enhanced Loran Rubidium

Receiver
Main
Board Single Board
Computer

Power
Supply

Front Back
 STCW Table A-II/1

GNSS Overview
GNSS Overview
GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems) started with the launch of
the U.S Department of Defense Global Positioning System (GPS) in the
late 1970’s

GNSS systems currently include

GPS (United States)
GLONASS (Russia)
Galileo (European Union)
BeiDou (China)
Architecture
GNSS satellite systems consists of three
major components or “segments:
Space Segment
Control Segment
User Segment
Space Segment
Consists of GNSS satellites, orbiting
about 20,000 km above the earth.
Each GNSS has its own constellation of
satellites
Control Segment
The control segment comprises of a ground-based network of master
control stations, data uploading stations, and monitor stations.
Master control stations adjust the satellites’ orbit parameters and on-
board high-precision clocks when necessary to maintain accuracy
Monitor stations monitor the satellites’ signal and status, and relay
this information to the master control station
Uploading stations uploads any change in satellite status back to the
satellites
User Segment

User segment consists of GNSS

antennas and receivers used to
determine information such as
position, velocity, and time
Basic GNSS Concepts
 STCW Table A-II/1
Basic GNSS
Concepts

The above figure shows the steps involved in using GNSS to determine
time and position then applying the information.
 STCW Table A-II/1

Satellites
Multiple GNSS constellations orbiting the earth
Beneficial in difficult environment with obstructions to direct line of sight to
satellites. Multiple constellations will give more observations
GNSS satellites know their time and orbit ephemerides very accurately
Timing accuracy is very important. The time it takes a GNSS signal to travel from
satellites to receiver is used to determine distances (range) to satellites
1 microsecond = 300m, 1 nanosecond = 30 cm.
Small deviations in time can result in large position errors
 STCW Table A-II/1

Satellites
GPS transmits at the following frequencies

This frequency band is referred to as the L-band, a portion of the radio spectrum between 1 and 2
GHz
L1 transmits a navigation message, the coarse acquisition (C/A) code which is freely available to
public. An encrypted precision (P) code, called the P(Y) code (restricted access), is transmitted on
both L1 and L2.
 STCW Table A-II/1

Satellites
Navigation message includes the following information:
GPS date and time
Satellite status and health
Satellite ephemeris data, which allows the receiver to calculate the satellite’s position.
Almanac, which contains information and status for all GPS satellites
The P(Y) code is for military use, and provides better interference rejection than the C/A code.
Newer GPS satellites now transmits L2 C/A code (L2C), providing a second publicly available code to
civilian users.
NovAtel can make use of both L2 carrier and code without knowing how it is coded. This is called
semi-codeless technology.
 STCW Table A-II/1

Propagation
GNSS signals pass through the
near-vacuum of space, then
through the various layers of the
atmosphere to the earth, as
illustrated in the figure below:
 STCW Table A-II/1

Propagation
To determine accurate positions, we need to know the range to the satellite. This is
the direct path distance from the satellite to the user equipment
The signal will “bend” when traveling through the earth’s atmosphere
This “bending” increases the amount of time the signal takes to travel from the
satellite to the receiver
The computed range will contain this propagation time error, or atmospheric error
Since the computed range contains errors and is not exactly equal to the actual range,
we refer to it as a “pseudorange”
 STCW Table A-II/1
Propagation
The ionosphere contributes to most of the atmospheric error. It resides at 70 to
1000 km above the earth’s surface.
Free electrons resides in the ionosphere, influencing electromagnetic wave
propagation
Ionospheric delay are frequency dependent. It can be virtually eliminated by
calculating the range using both L1 and L2
The troposphere, the lowest layer of the Earth’s atmosphere, contributes to
delays due to local temperature, pressure and relative humidity
Tropospheric delay cannot be eliminated the way ionospheric delay can be
It is possible to model the tropospheric delay then predict and compensate for
much of the error
 STCW Table A-II/1

Propagation
Signals can be reflected on the way to the receiver. This is called
“multipath propagation”
These reflected signals are delayed from the direct signal, and if strong
enough, can interfere with the direct signal
Techniques have been developed whereby the receiver only considers the
earliest-arriving signals and ignore multipath signals, which arrives later
It cannot be entirely eliminated
 STCW Table A-II/1
Reception
Receivers need at least 4 satellites to obtain a position. If more are available,
these additional observations can be used to improve the position solution
GNSS signals are modulated by a unique pseudorandom digital sequence, or
code. Each satellite uses a different pseudorandom code
Pseudorandom means that the signal appears random, but actually repeats itself
after a period of time
Receivers know the pseudorandom code for each satellite. This allows receivers
to correlate (synchronize) with the GNSS signal to a particular satellite
Through code correlation, the receiver is able to recover the signal and the
information they contain
 STCW Table A-II/1
Reception
For each satellite tracked, the receiver determines the propagation time

The above figure shows the transmission of a pseudorandom code from a satellite. The
receiver can determine the time of propagation by comparing the transmit time to the
receive time
 STCW Table A-II/1

Computation
Range measurements from 4 satellites are needed to determine position
For each satellite tracked, the receiver calculates how long the satellite signal took to
reach it, which in turn, determines the distance to the satellite:
Propagation Time = Time Signal Reached Receiver – Time Signal Left Satellite
Distance to Satellite = Propagation Time * Speed of Light
Receiver now knows where the satellite was at the time of transmission through the
use of orbit ephemerides
Through trilateration, the receiver calculates its position
 STCW Table A-II/1
In a two-dimentional world, here is how position calculation works:
If receiver acquires two satellites, it has two possible positions:
 STCW Table A-II/1
Computation
Due to receiver clock error, the intersecting points between the range of satellite A and B do not
match with the actual position

Receiver clocks are not nearly as accurate as satellite clocks. Their typical accuracy is only about
5 parts per million.
When multiplied by the speed of light, the resulting accuracy is within +/- 1500 meters
 STCW Table A-II/1
Computation
When we now compute the range of the third satellite, the points will not intersect to a single computed
position

The receiver knows that the pseudoranges to the three satellites do not intersect due to receiver clock
errors
 STCW Table A-II/1
The receiver can advance or delay its clock until the
pseudoranges to the three satellites converge at a single Computation
point
Through this process, the satellite clock has now been
“transferred” to the receiver clock, eliminating the
receiver clock error
The receiver now has both a very accurate position and a
very accurate time
When you extend this principle to a three-dimensional
world, we will need the range of a fourth satellite to
compute a position
 STCW Table A-II/1
Computation
• In summary, here are the GNSS error sources that affect the accuracy of pseudorange calculation:

• The degree with which the above pseudorange errors affect positioning accuracy depends largely on the
geometry of the satellites being used. This will be discussed later in this training.
GNSS Satellite Systems
 STCW Table A-II/1
GNSS Satellite Systems
Currently, the following GNSS systems are operational
GPS (United States)
GLONASS (Russia)
The folowing GNSS systems are planned and are in varying stages of development
Galileo (European Union)
BeiDou (China)
The following regional navigation satellite systems are planned and are in varying
stages of development:
IRNSS (India)
QZSS (Japan)
 STCW Table A-II/1
GPS
GPS (Global Positioning System) or NAVSTAR,
as it is officially called, is the first GNSS system
Launched in the late 1970’s and early 1980’s
for the US Department of Defense
Since the initial launch, several generations,
referred to as “Blocks”, of GPS satellites have
been launched
GPS was initially launched for military use, but
opened up to civilian use in 1983
 STCW Table A-II/1
GPS
The GPS space segment is summarized in the table below:

The orbital period of each satellite is approximately 12 hours

At any point in time, a GPS receiver will have at least 6 satellites in view at any point on Earth
under open sky conditions
 STCW Table A-II/1

GPS

GPS orbits approximately 26,560 km above the

Earth
GPS satellites continuously broadcast their
identification, ranging signals, satellite status
and corrected ephemerides (orbit parameters)
Each satellite is identified by their Space Vehicle
Number (SVN) and their PseudoRandom code
Number (PRN)
 STCW Table A-II/1
GPS

GPS signals are based on CDMA

(Code Division Multiple Access)
technology
The table below provides further
information on different GPS
frequencies
 STCW Table A-II/1
GPS
GPS Control Segment consists of a
master control station and a backup
master control station, in addition to
monitor stations throughout the world
The monitor stations tracks the satellite
broadcast signal and pass them on to
the master control station where the
ephemerides are recalculated. The
resulting ephemerides and timing
corrections are transmitted back to the
satellites through data up-loading
stations
 STCW Table A-II/1
GPS Modernization
GPS space segment modernization has included new signals, as well as improvements
in atomic clock accuracy, satellite signal strength and reliability
Control segment modernization includes improved ionospheric and trophospheric
modelling and in-orbit accuracy, and additional monitoring stations
Latest generation of GPS satellites has the capability to transmit new civilian signal,
designalted L2C
L2C will be easier for the user segment to track and will provide improved navigation
accuracy
It will also provide the ability to directly measure and remove the ionospheric delay
error for a particular satellite, using the civilian signals on both L1 and L2.
 STCW Table A-II/1

GPS Modernization

A new GPS L5 frequency (1176.45 MHz) is slowly being added to new satellites
The first NAVSTAR GPS satellite to transmit L5, on a demonstration basis, was
launched in 2009
L5 signal is added to meet the requirements of critical safety-of-life applications
GPS satellite modernization will also include a new military signal and an improved
L1C which will provide greater civilian interoperability with Galileo
 STCW Table A-II/1
GLONASS
GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite System) was developed by the Soviet Union
as an experimental military communications system during the 1970s
When the Cold War ended, the Soviet Union recognized that GLONASS can be
used in commercial applications
First satellite was launched in 1983, and system declared fully operational in 1993
GLONASS went through a period of performance decline
Russia is committed to bring the system back up to operational and set a date of
2011 for full deployment of the system
 STCW Table A-II/1

GLONASS
The GLONASS constellation provides visibility to a variable number of
satellites, depending on your location
The GLONASS space segment consists of 24 satellites in three orbital planes
The GLONASS constellation geometry repeats about once every eight days
GLONASS satellites orbit 25,510 km above the Earth’s surface. About 1,050
km lower than GPS satellites
 STCW Table A-II/1
GLONASS
The GLONASS control segment consists of the system control center and a
network of command tracking stations across Russia
Similar to GPS, the GLONASS control segment monitors the status of satellites,
determines the ephemerides corrections, and satellite clock offsets with respect
to GLONASS time and UTC time
Twice a day, it uploads corrections to the satellites
GLONASS

GLONASS satellites each transmit on slightly different L1 and L2 frequencies

GLONASS satellites transmit the same code at different frequencies, a technique
known as FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
The GLONASS system is based on 24 satellites using 12 frequencies. It achieves
this by having antipodal satellites transmitting on the same frequency
GLONASS
The GLONASS system is based on 24 satellites using 12 frequencies. It achieves this by having antipodal
satellites transmitting on the same frequency

Antipodal satellites are in the same orbital plane but are separated by 180 degrees. The paired
satellites can transmit on the same frequency because they will never appear at the same time in view
of a receiver on the Earth’s surface
Galileo
• Europe’s global navigation system
• Guaranteed global positioning service under civilian control
• Guaranteed availability of service under all but the most extreme circumstances
• Suitable for applications where safety is crucial, such as air and ground transportation
• GIOVE-A and GIOVE-B test satellites are already in orbit
GNSS Satellite Systems – Galileo

• Once the constellation is operational, Galileo navigation signals will provide coverage
at all latitudes
• Two Galileo Control Centres (GCC) will be located in Europe
• Data recovered by a global network of twenty Galileo Sensor Stations (GSS) will be
sent to the GCC
• Galileo will provide global Search and Rescue (SAR) function
 STCW Table A-II/1
• Five Galileo services are proposed:
 STCW Table A-II/1
BeiDou
• China’s global navigation system
• Initial system will provide regional coverage
• A target of 2015 to begin implementation of GEO and MEO satellites for global coverage

• Compass will provide two levels of services:

• Public service for civilian use, and free to users in China
• Licensed military service, more accurate than public service
 STCW Table A-II/1

Planned Systems

IRNSS (India Regional Navigation Satellite System, India)

Satellite system to provide regional coverage
Planned to launch in 2013
QZSS (Quasi-Zenith Satellite System, Japan)
A three satellite system that will provide regional communication services
and positioning information for the mobile environment
 STCW Table A-II/1

Advanced GNSS Concepts

 STCW Table A-II/1

Differential GNSS

• Differential GNSS uses a fixed GNSS

receiver, referred to as “base station”
to transmit corrections to the rover
station for improved positioning
 STCW Table A-II/1
Differential GNSS
The base station determines ranges to the GNSS satellites by:
Using the code-based positioning technique as described earlier
Using the precisely known locations of the base station and the satellites, the
location of satellites being determined from the precisely known orbit
ephemerides and satellite time
The base station computes the GNSS errors by differencing the ranges measured
from the above methods
The base station sends these computed errors as corrections to the rovers, which
will incorporate the corrections into their position calculations
A data link between the base and rover stations is required
 STCW Table A-II/1
Differential GNSS

For corrections to be applied, the base and rover must be tracking a minimum of
4 common GNSS satellites (recommend at least 6 common satellites for best
results)
Rover’s position accuracy will depend on the absolute accuracy of the base
station’s known position
It is assumed that the propagation paths from the satellites to the base and rover
stations are similar, as long as the baseline length is not too long
Differential GPS can work very well with baseline lengths up to tens of kilometers
 STCW Table A-II/1
Satellite-Based Augmentation System
Satellite-Based Augmentation System (SBAS) is suitable for
applications where the cost of installing a base station is not
justified, or if the rover stations are spread over too wide of
an area
SBAS is a geosynchronous satellite system that provides
services to improve the overall GNSS accuracy
Improve accuracy through wide-area corrections for range errors
Enhance integrity through integrity monitoring data
Improve signal availability if SBAS transmits ranging signals from it satellites
 STCW Table A-II/1
Satellite-Based Augmentation System

• Reference stations receive GNSS signals and

forwards them to master station
• Master station accurately calculates wide-area
corrections
• Uplink station sends correction data up to
SBAS satellites
• SBAS satellites broadcasts corrections
 STCW Table A-II/1
Satellite-Based Augmentation System
• SBAS has two level of services:
• Free, government-provided SBAS services in GPS frequency (except CDGPS)
• Commercial SBAS service in a different frequency
• Different free SBAS services are available around the world:
• Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS - North America)
• European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS)
• CDGPS (Canada and continental United States)
• MTSAT Satellite Based Augmentation System (MSAS - Japan)
• GPS-Aided GEO Augmented Navigation system (GAGAN – India)
• Satellite Navigation Augmentation System (SNAS – China)
 STCW Table A-II/1
Satellite-Based Augmentation System
Commercial SBAS system includes OmniSTAR, VERIPOS, and StarFire
OmniSTAR is a subscription-based service that transmits differential
corrections at L-band frequencies close to GPS frequencies
OmniSTAR provides three levels of services:
VBS, providing sub-metre horizontal accuracy
XP, providing decimeter accuracy
HP, providing sub-decimeter accuracy
OmniSTAR satellites provide coverage over most of the world’s land areas
http://www.omnistar.com/chart.html
 STCW Table A-II/1
Real-Time Kinematic (RTK)

Carrier-based ranging that provides

more accurate positioning than through
code-base positioning
Basic idea is to reduce and remove
errors from satellites common to both
the base and rover
 STCW Table A-II/1
Real-Time Kinematic (RTK)
The range is calculated by determining the number of carrier cycles between the satellite and
the rover station, then multiplying this number by the carrier wavelength
RTK corrections from a base station is transmitted to the rover to correct for errors such as
satellite clock and ephemerides, and ionospheric and tropospheric errors
A process called “ambiguity resolution” is used to determine the number of whole cycles
Similar to Differential GNSS, the rover’s position accuracy will depend on the base station’s
accuracy, baseline length, and the quality of the base station’s satellite observations
Virtual Reference Stations (VRS) is a form of Network RTK where there is a wide network of
base stations sending out corrections to user stations on demand
 STCW Table A-II/1
Dilution of Precision (DOP)
DOP is a numeric value that represents the
geometric arrangements of satellites
The ideal case is to have satellites spread out
over the sky
Good DOP is represented by a low number
(approximately 2), and bad DOP is represented
by a high number (above 6 is generally
unacceptable)
An example of bad DOP is if all the satellites are
clustered in a small area, creating a large area of
range intersections
 STCW Table A-II/1

Dilution of Precision (DOP)

A good DOP means the satellites in view

are spread throughout the sky
Area of range intersection is much
smaller, positions can be determined
more accurately
 STCW Table A-II/1
Dilution of Precision (DOP)
DOP can be expressed as a number of separate elements:
HDOP – Horizontal DOP
VDOP – Vertical DOP
PDOP – Position DOP
In countries at high latitude (ie. Canada), GNSS satellites are lower in the sky
(towards the equator), and having a good DOP is sometimes challanging
Having multiple constellations and new satellites being launched can provide more
observations, improving DOP
DOP can be predicted using mission planning tools so users can determine the ideal
time for their survey
 STCW Table A-II/1

Combined GNSS/Inertial Navigation

Systems

Combination of GNSS and INS will give

continuous position, time and velocity
information, even in difficult
environments where there is limited GPS
satellites in view
 STCW Table A-II/1
Combined GNSS/Inertial Navigation Systems
INS uses rotation and acceleration information from an Inertial Measurement Unit
(IMU) to compute position over time
An INS can also solve for full attitude (roll, pitch and heading) measurements
In absence of external reference such as a GNSS solution, INS solution will drift over
time
When combined, GNSS and INS will provide accurate and reliable navigation
solution
Tightly coupled systems allow the INS to use GNSS data to contain its drift, while the
INS solution feeds back into the GNSS solution to improve signal reacquisition and
convergence time
 STCW Table A-II/1
GNSS Data Post-Processing

For applications where real-time solution is not necessary, raw GNSS data can be
collected and stored for post mission processing
Post-processing does not require a real-time transmission of differential corrections,
simplifying hardware configuration
Users can load data from multiple base stations, or download freely available base
station data
Users can also download PPP data (precise ephemeris and clock data) to process
without a base station
Post-processing can be done on static or kinematic data
GNSS Applications and
Equipment
 STCW Table A-II/1

Applications
Some common GNSS Applications include:
Transportation
Timing
Machine Control
Marine
Surveying
Defence
Port Automation
Global Positioning
System
 STCW Table A-II/1
Overview
Official name of GPS is NAVigational Satellite Timing And Ranging
Global Positioning System (NAVSTAR GPS)
Global Positioning Systems (GPS) is a form of Global Navigation
Satellite System (GNSS)
Only completely functional one of its kind at this time
First developed by the United States Department of Defense
Consists of two dozen GPS satellites in medium Earth orbit (The region
of space between 2000km and 35,786 km)
 STCW Table A-II/1

Overview (continued)
Made up of two dozen satellites working in unison are known as a
satellite constellation
This constellation is currently controlled by the United States Air
Force 50th Space Wing
It costs about $750 million to manage and maintain the system per
year
Mainly used for navigation, map-making and surveying
 STCW Table A-II/1

Operation Overview
A GPS receiver can tell its own position by using the position data of itself, and compares that
data with 3 or more GPS satellites.
To get the distance to each satellite, the GPS transmits a signal to each satellite.
The signal travels at a known speed.
The system measures the time delay between the signal transmission and signal reception
of the GPS signal.
The signals carry information about the satellite’s location.
Determines the position of, and distance to, at least three satellites, to reduce error.
The receiver computes position using trilateration.
 STCW Table A-II/1

Trilateration
 STCW Table A-II/1
GPS Functionality
GPS systems are made up of 3 segments
Space Segment (SS)
Control Segment (CS)
User Segment (US)
 STCW Table A-II/1

Space Segment
GPS satellites fly in circular orbits at an altitude of 20,200 km and with a
period of 12 hours.
Powered by solar cells, the satellites continuously orient themselves to
point their solar panels toward the sun and their antenna toward the
earth.
Orbital planes are centered on the Earth
Each planes has about 55° tilt relative to Earth's equator in order to
cover the polar regions.
 STCW Table A-II/1
Space Segment (Continued)
Each satellite makes two complete orbits each sidereal day.
Sidereal - Time it takes for the Earth to turn 360 degrees in its rotation
It passes over the same location on Earth once each day.
Orbits are designed so that at the very least, six satellites are always
within line of sight from any location on the planet.
 STCW Table A-II/1
Space Segment (Continued)
There are currently 30 actively broadcasting satellites in the GPS
constellation.
Redundancy is used by the additional satellites to improve the precision
of GPS receiver calculations.
A non-uniform arrangement improves the reliability and availability of
the system over that of a uniform system, when multiple satellites fail
This is possible due to the number of satellites in the air today
 STCW Table A-II/1

Control Segment
The CS consists of 3 entities:
Master Control System
Monitor Stations
Ground Antennas
 STCW Table A-II/1

Master Control Station

The master control station, located at Falcon Air Force Base in Colorado
Springs, Colorado, is responsible for overall management of the remote
monitoring and transmission sites.
GPS ephemeris is the tabulation of computed positions, velocities and
derived right ascension and declination of GPS satellites at specific
times for eventual upload to GPS satellites.
 STCW Table A-II/1

Monitor Stations
Six monitor stations are located at Falcon Air Force Base in Colorado,
Cape Canaveral, Florida, Hawaii, Ascension Island in the Atlantic Ocean,
Diego Garcia Atoll in the Indian Ocean, and Kwajalein Island in the
South Pacific Ocean.
Each of the monitor stations checks the exact altitude, position, speed,
and overall health of the orbiting satellites.
 STCW Table A-II/1
Monitor Stations (continued)
• The control segment uses measurements collected by the monitor
stations to predict the behavior of each satellite's orbit and clock.
• The prediction data is up-linked, or transmitted, to the satellites for
transmission back to the users.
• The control segment also ensures that the GPS satellite orbits and
clocks remain within acceptable limits. A station can track up to 11
satellites at a time.
 STCW Table A-II/1

Monitor Stations (continued)

• This "check-up" is performed twice a day, by each station, as the
satellites complete their journeys around the earth.
• Variations such as those caused by the gravity of the moon, sun and
the pressure of solar radiation, are passed along to the master control
station.
 STCW Table A-II/1

Ground Antennas
• Ground antennas monitor and track the satellites from horizon to
horizon.
• They also transmit correction information to individual satellites.
 STCW Table A-II/1
User Segment
• The user's GPS receiver is the US of the GPS system.
• GPS receivers are generally composed of an antenna, tuned to the
frequencies transmitted by the satellites, receiver-processors, and a
highly-stable clock, commonly a crystal oscillator).
• They can also include a display for showing location and speed
information to the user.
• A receiver is often described by its number of channels this signifies how
many satellites it can monitor simultaneously. As of recent, receivers
usually have between twelve and twenty channels.
 STCW Table A-II/1
User Segment (continued)
• Using the RTCM SC-104 format, GPS receivers may include an input for
differential corrections.
• This is typically in the form of a RS-232 port at 4,800 bps speed. Data is actually
sent at a much lower rate, which limits the accuracy of the signal sent using
RTCM.
• Receivers with internal DGPS receivers are able to outclass those using
external RTCM data.
 STCW Table A-II/1

Navigational Systems
• GPS satellites broadcast three different types of data in the primary
navigation signal.
• Almanac – sends time and status information about the satellites.
• Ephemeris – has orbital information that allows the receiver to
calculate the position of the satellite.
• This data is included in the 37,500 bit Navigation Message,
which takes 12.5 minutes to send at 50 bps.
 STCW Table A-II/1

Navigational Systems (cont’d)

• Satellites broadcast two forms of clock information
• Coarse / Acquisition code (C/A) - freely available to the public. The C/A code is
a 1,023 bit long pseudo-random code broadcast at 1.023 MHz, repeating every
millisecond.
• Restricted Precise code (P-code) - reserved for military usage. The P-code is a
similar code broadcast at 10.23 MHz, but it repeats only once a week. In
normal operation, the anti-spoofing mode, the P code is first encrypted into
the Y-code, or P(Y), which can only be decrypted by users a valid key.
 STCW Table A-II/1

GPS Frequencies
• L1 (1575.42 MHz) - Mix of Navigation Message, coarse-acquisition (C/A)
code and encrypted precision P(Y) code.
• L2 (1227.60 MHz) - P(Y) code, plus the new L2C code on the Block IIR-M
and newer satellites.
• L3 (1381.05 MHz) - Used by the Defense Support Program to signal
detection of missile launches, nuclear detonations, and other
applications.
GPS Proposed Frequencies
• L4 (1379.913 MHz) - Being studied for additional correction to the part
of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation.
• L5 (1176.45 MHz) – To be used as a civilian safety-of-life (SoL) signal.
• Internationally protected range for aeronautical navigation.
• The first satellite that using this signal to be launched in 2008.
Position Calculation
• The coordinates are calculated according to the World Geodetic System
WGS84 coordinate system.
• The satellites are equipped with atomic clocks
• Receiver uses an internal crystal oscillator-based clock that is
continually updated using the signals from the satellites.
• Receiver identifies each satellite's signal by its distinct C/A code pattern,
then measures the time delay for each satellite.
Position Calculation (cont’d)
• The receiver emits an identical C/A sequence using the same seed number
the satellite used.
• By aligning the two sequences, the receiver can measure the delay and
calculate the distance to the satellite, called the pseudorange.
• Orbital position data from the Navigation Message is used to calculate the
satellite's precise position. Knowing the position and the distance of a
satellite indicates that the receiver is located somewhere on the surface of
an imaginary sphere centered on that satellite and whose radius is the
distance to it.
Position Calculation (cont’d)
• When four satellites are measured at the same time, the point where
the four imaginary spheres meet is recorded as the location of the
receiver.
• Earth-based users can substitute the sphere of the planet for one
satellite by using their altitude. Often, these spheres will overlap
slightly instead of meeting at one point, so the receiver will yield a
mathematically most-probable position.
 Issues That Affect Accuracy
• Changing atmospheric conditions change the speed of the GPS signals
as they pass through the Earth's atmosphere and ionosphere.
• Effect is minimized when the satellite is directly overhead
• Becomes greater for satellites nearer the horizon, since the signal is
affected for a longer time.
• Once the receiver's approximate location is known, a mathematical
model can be used to estimate and compensate for these errors.
Issues That Affect Accuracy (cont’d)
• Clock Errors can occur when, for example, a GPS satellite is boosted
back into a proper orbit.
• The receiver's calculation of the satellite's position will be incorrect
until it receives another ephemeris update.
• Onboard clocks are accurate, but they suffer from partial clock drift.
Issues That Affect Accuracy (cont’d)
• GPS Jamming can be used to limit the effectiveness of the GPS signal
• For example, it is believed GPS guided missiles have been misled to
attack non-target locations in the war in Afghanistan.
• The stronger the jamming signal, the more interference can be caused
to the GPS signal.
 Issues That Affect Accuracy (cont’d)
• GPS signals can also be affected by multipath issues
• Radio signals reflect off surrounding objects at a location. These
delayed signals can cause inaccuracy.
• Less severe in moving vehicles. When the GPS antenna is moving, the
false solutions using reflected signals quickly fail to converge and
only the direct signals result in stable solutions.
Methods of Improving Accuracy
• Precision monitoring
• Dual Frequency Monitoring
• Refers to systems that can compare two or more signals
• These two frequencies are affected in two different ways. How
they are affected can be predicted however
• After monitoring these signals, it’s possible to calculate what the
error is and eliminate it
• Receivers that have the correct decryption key can decode the
P(Y)-code transmitted on signals to measure the error.
Methods of Improving Accuracy (cont’d)
• Carrier-Phase Enhancement (CPGPS)
• CPGPS uses the L1 carrier wave, which has a period 1000 times smaller than
that of the C/A bit period, to act as an additional clock signal and resolve
uncertainty.
• The phase difference error in the normal GPS amounts to between 2 and 3
meters (6 to 10 ft) of ambiguity.
• CPGPS works to within 1% of perfect transition to reduce the error to 3
centimeters (1 inch) of ambiguity.
• By eliminating this source of error, CPGPS coupled with DGPS normally
realizes between 20 and 30 centimeters (8 to 12 inches) of absolute accuracy.
Methods of Improving Accuracy (cont’d)
• Relative Kinematic Positioning (RKP)
• Determination of range signal can be resolved to an accuracy of
less than 10 centimeters (4 in).
• Resolves the number of cycles in which the signal is transmitted
and received by the receiver.
• Accomplished by using a combination of DGPS correction data,
transmitting GPS signal phase information and ambiguity
resolution techniques via statistical tests — possibly with
processing in real-time.
Methods of Improving Accuracy (cont’d)
• Augmentation
• Relies on external information being integrated into the calculation
process.
• Some augmentation systems transmit additional information about
sources of error.
• Some provide direct measurements of how much the signal was off in
the past
• Another group could provide additional navigational or vehicle
information to be integrated in the calculation process.
Applications – Military
• Military GPS user equipment has been integrated into fighters, bombers,
tankers, helicopters, ships, submarines, tanks, jeeps, and soldiers'
equipment.
• In addition to basic navigation activities, military applications of GPS
include target designation of cruise missiles and precision-guided
weapons and close air support.
• To prevent GPS interception by the enemy, the government controls GPS
receiver exports
• GPS satellites also can contain nuclear detonation detectors.
Applications – Civilian (cont’d)
• Marine applications
• GPS allows access to fast and accurate position, course, and speed
information, saving navigators time and fuel through more efficient
traffic routing.
• Provides precise navigation information to boaters.
• Enhances efficiency and economy for container management in port
facilities.
Augmented Satellite Systems
WHAT IS DGPS?
Differential GPS is a method of increasing the accuracy of positions derived from
GPS receivers. With DGPS receivers, position accuracy is improved, going from 30
metres to better than 10 metres.

Types of DGPS
1. Real-Time DGPS
2. Satellite Differential Services
Types of DGPS
1. Real-Time DGPS - For differential correction to work, fixes recorded
by the mobile receiver must be synchronized with fixes recorded by
the base station (or stations). You can provide your own base
station, or use correction signals produced from reference stations
maintained by the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, the U.S.
Coast Guard, or other public agencies or private subscription
services. Given the necessary equipment and available signals,
synchronization can take place immediately ("real-time") or after the
fact ("post-processing"). First let's consider real-time differential.
STCW Table A-II/1
Types of DGPS
STCW Table A-II/1

Types of DGPS
2. Satellite Differential Services - this system obtains corrections from more than
one reference station. Reference stations collect the base station GPS data and
relay this data in RTCM SC-104 format to a Network Control Center, which
sends the information to a geostationary satellite for verification. The verified
information is sent to the roving GPS receiver to ensure it obtains GPS positions
in real time.
Types of DGPS
Regional Satellite Navigation Systems
BeiDou - It consists of two separate satellite constellations – a limited test system that
has been operating since 2000, and a full-scale global navigation system that is
currently under construction.
The first BeiDou system, officially called the BeiDou Satellite Navigation Experimental
System and also known as BeiDou-1, consists of three satellites and offers limited
coverage and applications. It has been offering navigation services, mainly for
customers in China and neighboring regions, since 2000.
The second generation of the system, officially called the BeiDou Satellite Navigation
System (BDS) and also known as COMPASS or BeiDou-2, will be a global satellite
navigation system consisting of 35 satellites, and is under construction as of January
2015. It became operational in China in December 2011, with 10 satellites in use, and
began offering services to customers in the Asia-Pacific region in December 2012.
Regional Satellite Navigation Systems
Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) - is an autonomous
regional satellite navigation system being developed by the Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO) which would be under complete control of the Indian
government. The requirement of such a navigation system is driven because access
to foreign government-controlled global navigation satellite systems is not
guaranteed in hostile situations, as happened to the Indian military depending on
American GPS during the Kargil War. The IRNSS would provide two services, with
the Standard Positioning Service open for civilian use, and the Restricted Service
(an encrypted one) for authorised users (including the military).
IRNSS would have seven satellites, out of which four are already placed in orbit.
The constellation of seven satellites is expected to operate from 2016 onwards.
Regional Satellite Navigation Systems
Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) - is a proposed three-satellite regional time
transfer system and Satellite Based Augmentation System for the Global Positioning
System, that would be receivable within Japan. The first satellite 'Michibiki' was
launched on 11 September 2010. Full operational status was expected by 2013. In
March 2013, Japan's Cabinet Office announced the expansion of the Quasi-Zenith
Satellite System from three satellites to four. The $526 million contract with
Mitsubishi Electric for the construction of three satellites is slated for launch before
the end of 2017.
Regional Satellite Navigation Systems
Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by Satellite or,
in French, Détermination d'Orbite et Radiopositionnement Intégré par
Satellite (in both case yielding the acronym DORIS) is a French satellite
system used for the determination of satellite
orbits (e.g. TOPEX/Poseidon) and for positioning.
DGPS Limitation
The DGPS signal could be reflected from the surfaces of nearby obstructions. It that
happens, the signal may reach the receiver antenna indirectly and positional accuracy
may be degraded.
Obstructions can include other vessels, mountains, trees and even parts of your own
vessel. Indeed, if you stand too close to the antenna, you could become the obstruction.
Remember, for DGPS to work you must have clear visibility of the full sky.
The coverage area to take advantage of DGPS is limited.
To ensure greater coverage area more DGPS stations need to be added.
The position accuracy degrades as the separation between DGPS and aircraft GPS-Rx
increases.
DGPS Limitation
GLONASS
Global navigation system (GLObal NAvigation Satellite System), called GLONASS,
which is a summary of the former Soviet Union in the first generation of satellite
navigation systems on the basis of CICADA, absorbing part of the U.S. GPS system,
the experience, since 12 October 1982 launched the beginning of the second
generation navigation satellite systems. On January 18, 1996 to complete the
design of satellite data (24), and start the whole operation. GLONASS's primary role
is to achieve global, all-weather navigation and positioning, real-time, the other,
but also for global time transfer. Currently, GLONASS by Russia responsible.
GLONASS Principles
1. The space satellite parts. Space satellites in part by the 24 GLONASS satellites,
including the work of the satellite 21, three spare satellites in orbit, evenly distributed in
three orbital planes. Three orbital planes cross into the 120 degree angle, uniformly
distributed on each track 8 satellites, orbit altitude of about 19100km, orbital
eccentricity was 0.01, orbital inclination of 64.8 degrees. This ensures that the
distribution of any place on Earth at any one time can be received at least four satellite
navigation information for the user's navigation and positioning to provide protection.
GLONASS satellites are each equipped with satellite stability of cesium atomic clock, and
receives the ground control station and control the navigation information and
instructions, on-board computer on which the navigation information for processing to
generate the navigation message broadcast to the user, control information is used to
control the operation of the satellite in space.
GLONASS Principles
2. The ground monitoring part. Ground monitoring part of the GLONASS satellites
to achieve the overall maintenance and control. It includes the system control
center (located in Moscow Golitsyn Novo) and scattered throughout the territory of
Russia, the tracking controller network. Ground control equipment is responsible
for collecting, processing GLONASS satellites in orbit and signal information to each
satellite launch control commands and navigation information.
GLONASS Principles
3. The user segment. GLONASS GLONASS users to receive satellite signal receiver, and mea-
sure the pseudorange or carrier phase, combined with the satellite ephemeris for the nec-
essary processing, the user can get the 3-dimensional coordinates, velocity and time.
GLONASS positioning principle is Intersection. GLONASS satellite position at any one time
can be calculated by the satellite ephemeris, in theory, as long as users know the distance
to three satellites, can calculate the user's location, but it requires a satellite and the user
and the precision of time synchronization between the satellite and high, is still not fully sat-
isfied, but to introduce a time parameter. As much an unknown quantity, so the actual
positioning receiver to at least four satellite signals. GLONASS satellites simultaneously
launch coarse code (C / A code) and precision code (P code), C / A codes are used to pro-
vide to the civil standard positioning, while the P code for the Russian military precision
positioning or scientific research.
How is GLONASS different from GPS
GPS developed by USA has a network of 31 satellites covering this planet and has
been widely used in commercial devices like mobile phones, navigators etc.
GLONASS is developed by Russia originally started by Soviet Union in 1976. This has
a network of 24 satellites covering the earth.
Orbit and constellation of GLONASS and GPS

GLONASS GPS
How is GLONASS different from GPS
GPS developed by USA has a network of 31 satellites covering this planet and has
been widely used in commercial devices like mobile phones, navigators etc.
GLONASS is developed by Russia originally started by Soviet Union in 1976. This has
a network of 24 satellites covering the earth.
Table of specs comparing GPS vs GLONASS
Specification GLONASS GPS
Owner Russian Federation United States
Coding FDMA CDMA
Number of satellites At-least 24 31
Orbital Height 21150 Km 19130 km
Accuracy Position: 5–10 m Position: 3.5-7.8 m
Orbital plane inclination 64.8 degree 55 degree
Table of specs comparing GPS vs GLONASS
Specification GLONASS GPS
Orbital period 11 hours and 16 minutes 11 hours and 58 minutes
Frequency Around 1.602 GHz (SP) 1.57542 GHz (L1 signal)
Around 1.246 GHz (SP) 1.2276 GHz (L2 signal)

Status Operational Operational

Advantage of GLONASS over GPS (GLONASS Vs GPS)
There is no clear advantage other than accuracy over GPS. When used alone
GLONASS doesn’t have that strong coverage as GPS has, but when both used
together certainly increases accuracy with coverage. And it is more useful in
northern latitudes as Russia started GLONASS originally for Russia.
The accuracy is an advantage of GLONASS with up-to 2 meter of accuracy. GPS +
GLONASS allows your device to be pin pointed by a group of 55 satellites all across
the globe. So when you are in a place where GPS signals are stuck like between
huge buildings or subways, you will be tracked by GLONASS satellites accurately.
GLONASS Limitation
This feature is not a “fix all” for positioning problems, only an aid. If conditions are
unfavourable for GPS, this feature will help the situation although there may still be
times when there are positioning problems due to satellite constellation issues. The
use of GLONASS will only be available if the data format is set to mojo1 or RTCM
3.0. As there is no published standard for GLONASS reference corrections within
the CMR protocol, this will result in unpredictable behaviour for any non-Leica
device if CMR is used.
Galileo
Is the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) that is currently being created by
the European Union (EU) and European Space Agency (ESA), headquartered in Prague in
the Czech Republic, with two ground operations centres, Oberpfaffenhofen near Munich in
Germany and Fucino in Italy. The €5 billion project is named after the Italian
astronomer Galileo Galilei. One of the aims of Galileo is to provide an indigenous alternative
high-precision positioning system upon which European nations can rely, independently
from the Russian GLONASS and US GPS systems, in case they were disabled by their
operators. The use of basic (low-precision) Galileo services will be free and open to
everyone. The high-precision capabilities will be available for paying commercial users.
Galileo is intended to provide horizontal and vertical position measurements within 1-metre
precision, and better positioning services at high latitudes than other positioning systems.
Principle of Galileo satellite system
In order to do this, the satellites and the receivers use very accurate clocks which are
synchronized so that they generate the same code at exactly the same time. The
GALILEO satellites emit personalised signals indicating the precise time the signal
leaves the satellite. The ground receiver, incorporated for example into a mobile
phone, has in its memory the precise details of the orbits of all the satellites in the
constellation. The code received from the satellite can be compared with the code
generated by the receiver. By comparing the codes, the time difference between
when the satellite generated the code and when the receiver generated the code can
be determined. This interval is the travel time of the code. Multiplying this travel
time, in seconds, by 300,000 kilometer per second gives the distance from the
receiver position to the satellite in kilometre.
Orbit and constellation of Galileo
Dual atomic clocks
The Galileo satellites carry two types of clocks: rubidium atomic frequency
standards and passive hydrogen masers. The stability of the rubidium clock is so
good that it would lose only three seconds in one million years, while the passive
hydrogen maser is even more stable and it would lose only one second in three
million years. However this kind of stability is really needed, since an error of only a
few nanoseconds (billionths of a second) on the Galileo measurements would
produce a positioning error of metres which would not be acceptable.
Passive Hydrogen Maser
The most stable and accurate
Looses no more than 0.5 ns in 12h,
i.e. 1s in 3 millions of year

Rubidium
Looses 3s in 1 million of years
30 (MEO) in 3 circular orbits
The fully deployed Galileo system comprises 30 satellites (27 operational + 3 active
spares), positioned in three circular Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) planes at 23,222
km altitude and an inclination of 56 degrees.

The Galileo navigation signals provides good coverage even at latitudes up to 75

degrees north, which corresponds to the North Cape, and beyond.

The large number of satellites together with the optimisation of the constellation,
and the availability of the three active spare satellites, will ensure that the loss of
one satellite has no discernible effect on the user.
Difference in receiving signals
The operation of satellite navigations systems is based on the method of
triangulation. Knowing the distance from at least three points (i.e. three
satellites), the receiver on the ground can calculate its position. The distances
are calculated by measuring the time that a certain signal, known to the
receiver and transmitted by the satellite, takes to travel the distance between
the satellite and the user.
Difference in receiving signals
Each signal contains information on the time reference of the atomic
clock on board the satellite and information on the satellite’s orbit.
This allows the user to determine the position of the satellite and his
own distance from it with a high degree of accuracy. Simulation studies
of the combined use of Galileo and GPS civil signals have
demonstrated that users may expect a clear enhancement of
performance in terms of positioning accuracy and navigation solution.
The compatibility and interoperability that the Galileo signal structure
will offer with respect to GPS is especially relevant in the E2-L1-E1
band.
Galileo limitation
There is limited space in the frequency spectrum, and the frequency
used by the M-code provides the ‘best performance in peacetime,
particularly in terms of resistance and robust- ness, the best
cost/benefit ratio, and the best guarantee of continuity and integrity.’75
Moreover, to attain the PRS required sub-metre precision coupled with
minimal interference, the signal needs two frequency bands that are
spaced far apart, making the choice of the L1 (denominated G1) band
even more imperative.
Galileo limitation

At the 2000 World Radiocommunication Conference (WRC) held in Istanbul, it

was decided that there was not enough bandwidth in the L1 band for all
potential signals, effectively opening the way for overlaps.76 It should be noted
that while GLONASS also uses the L1 band, overlaying with its signal is not
considered a viable option for Galileo, since it is based on a design that is
significantly different from Galileo.
Galileo

The Galileo performances are different for each service. For the Galileo Open Service (OS) no
specific requirements of integrity are applicable. The performances for horizontal
positioning accuracy at 95% for a dual-frequency receiver are 4 m (8 m for vertical accuracy), with
an availability of the service of 99%.

In the case of the Galileo Safety of Life (SoL) and the Galileo Public Regulated Service (PRS),
the performance requirements include horizontal and vertical accuracy, integrity,continuity and
time to alert for different service levels. The availability of the service should be 99.5% for both
services.
Galileo
Galileo satellites will transmit 10 different signals. Of these, 6 will be devoted to
civilian (Open Service) and safety-of-life (SoL) services, 2 for commercial users and the
remaining 2 (public regulated services or PRS) for official/regulated personnel. Apart
from these timing and navigation transmissions, Galileo will provide information
concerning the accuracy and status of its signals. Known as ‘integrity messages’,
these signals are specifically geared for SoL applications although they are likely to
be offered to service industries requiring legal guarantees.
There are two bands in the region allocated to the Aeronautical Radio Navigation
Service (ARNS) on a primary basis worldwide. These bands are especially suitable
for Safety-of-Life applications because no other users are allowed to interfere with
their signals. They correspond to the upper L band (1 559 - 1 610 MHz), having the
GPS L1, Galileo E1 and GLONASS G1, and to the bottom of the Lower Band-L (1 151
- 1 214 MHz) where GPS L5 and Galileo E5 are located, with E5a and L5 coexisting in
the same frequencies. The remaining GPS L2, GLONASS G2 and Galileo E6 signals
are in the bands 1 215.6 - 1 350 MHz.
These bands were allocated to Radio-location Services (ground radars) and RNSS on
a primary basis, thence the signals in these bands are more vulnerable to
interference than the previous ones.
The Radio-Navigation Satellite Service (RNSS) portion of the RF spectrum is overcrowded. This is

especially true on the E1/L1 band. Nevertheless even those bands that have not been used yet will

certainly be shared by many systems in the near future. Thus, the search of other free frequency

resources is something that will occur with a high probability in the next years.

During the World Radio Conference 2000 (WRC-2000), the Galileo program obtained authorization to

use C-band frequencies between 5010 and 5030 MHz. At the time, a dedicated portion of the C-band

was assigned for Radio-Navigation, but technical complexities made it impossible for the first

generation of Galileo.
STCW Table A-II/1

Echo-Sounder
STCW Table A-II/1

Echo-Sounder
Echo-Sounder is an instrument used in locating the features obtained from
Bathymetric navigation. A bathymetric navigation is defined as the art of
establishing a geographic position on the open sea by use of geological features of
the ocean floor. In this system it consist of two basic components- the transducer
and the recorder. The former used on most ships is located at or near the keel, and
contains both a projector for transmission of a sound signal into the water and a
hydrophone for the reception of the returning echoes. The latter is located where
required, usually in the chart room. The signal transmitted by an echo sounder is
electromechanical in nature. The transmitter which is usually physically located in
the recorder emits a pulsed continuous wave (CW) electromagnetic signal that is
translated into a sound pulse by the transducer.
STCW Table A-II/1
STCW Table A-II/1

Basic Components
The echo sounder or fathometer consist of two basic components- transducer and
the recorder. The transducer used on most ships is located at or near the keel, and
contains both a projector for transmission of a sound signal into the water and a
hydrophone for reception of the returning echoes. The recorder is located where
required, usually in the chart room.
STCW Table A-II/1

Components of an Echo Sounders

Transmitter
An equipment used to generate and transmit electromagnetic waves carrying messages or
signals.
Transducer
Generates the sound vibrations and also receive the reflected sound vibration.
Receiver
Receives electromagnetic waves carrying signals thrown by transmitter.
Indicator or recorder
Measures and indicates depth.
STCW Table A-II/1

Basic Principles of Marine Echo Sounding Equipment

The echo sounder transmits a sound pulse vertically into the water, and computes
the depth by measuring the time interval from transmission of the sound signal
until the return of its echo from the bottom. Most newer models of echo
sounders allow the operator to display the depths thus measured in feet,
fathoms, or meters, using any one of several scales.
When using echo sounder depths, the navigator must always remember that for
most models the depths recorded are those from the position of the sonar
transducer to the bottom. For actual water depths, the navigator must add the
transducer depth of the vessel to all readings.