DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

• The digestive system is a group of

organs working together to
convert food into energy and
basic nutrients to feed the entire
body.
• Food passes through a long tube
inside the body known as the
alimentary canal or the
gastrointestinal tract.
• The digestive system consists of
alimentary canal and digestive
glands.
• Alimentary canal is complete and
has well defined regions.
• It is concerned with ingestion,
digestion, absorption and
 Alimentary canal / Digestive tract
• It is a long coiled tube of about 8 to 10 meters
long. It is of various diameters at various parts. It
starts from mouth and ends in anus. It consists of
following parts they are as;
• Mouth
• Pharynx
• Oesophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
 1. Mouth
• The mouth or oral cavity is bounded by muscles and bones: anteriorly
—by the lips, posteriorly — it is continuous with the oropharynx,
laterally —by the muscles of the cheeks, superiorly —by the bony
hard palate and muscular soft palate, inferiorly —by the muscular
tongue and the soft tissues of the floor of the mouth.
• It is lined throughout with mucous membrane, consisting of stratified
squamous epithelium containing small mucus-secreting glands.
• The palate forms the roof of the mouth and is divided into the
anterior hard palate and the posterior soft palate. The soft palate is
muscular, curves downwards from the posterior end of the hard
palate, and blends with the walls of the pharynx at the sides.
• The uvula is a curved fold of muscle covered with mucous membrane,
hanging down from the middle of the free border of the soft palate.
• It consists of the following important parts:
The Tongue
• The tongue is a voluntary muscular,
protrusible, mobile and flattened
structure that occupies the floor of the
mouth.
• It is attached by its base to the hyoid
bone and by a fold of its mucous
membrane covering, called the
frenulum, to the floor of the mouth.
• The superior surface consists of
stratified squamous epithelium, with
numerous papillae (little projections),
containing nerve endings of the sense
of taste, sometimes called the taste
buds.
• The tongue plays an important part in:
mastication (chewing)
deglutition (swallowing)
speech
taste
The Teeth
• Teeth are present on both jaws.
• In human, teeth are thecodont (teeth embedded in
jaw sockets), diphyodont (two sets of teeth) and
heterodont (teeth of different shape and sizes).
• The teeth are embedded in the alveoli or sockets of
the alveolar ridges of the mandible and the maxilla.
• Each individual has two sets, the temporary or
deciduous teeth, and the permanent teeth.
• At birth, the teeth of both dentitions are present in
an immature form in the mandible and maxilla.
• There are 20 temporary teeth, 10 in each jaw. They
begin to erupt when the child is about 6 months
old, and should all be present after 24 months.
• The permanent teeth begin to replace the
deciduous teeth in the 6th year of age and this
dentition, consisting of 32 teeth, is usually complete
by the 24th year.
• Dental formula of milk teeth i 2/2 c 1/1 pm 0/0
m2/2 5x2/5x2 = 20
• Dental formula of permanent teeth i 2/2 c1/1 pm
2/2 m 3/3 8x2/8x2 = 32
Structure of tooth:
• It has 3 regions:
[Link] – exposed part of the tooth, part which
project above gum, covered with hardest
substance called enamel which is relatively
resistant to decay, there is a layer of hard
substance called dentine below the enamel
[Link] - part surrounded by gum
[Link] - part embedded in bony jaw that holds
the tooth, the incisor and canine and lower
premolar have one root, upper premolar and
lower molar have 2 roots and upper molar have
3 roots. Cement or cementum covers root of
tooth. Periodontal membrane covers cement
and fixes tooth in socket (thecodont). Root has
a narrow pulp cavity which is filled with nerve
fibres, odontoblast (dentine producing cells),
blood vessels, which delivers oxygen, nutrients
to the living tissues of tooth. Dentine has many
canaliculi that pass radially from the pulp cavity.
• Human beings and most of other mammals are heterodont. They
have different types of teeth with different functions.
1. Incisors – situated at the front of buccal cavity, have sharp and flat
edges used for cutting and biting food
2. Canines – pointed dagger shaped teeth, poorly developed in human
and help in tearing flesh
3. Premolars – broad and strong having one or two roots and two
cusps, specialized for crushing and grinding food, help in mastication
4. Molars – broad and strong having two or three roots, each molar
teeth has 4-5 cusps, used to crush and grind food (mastication), third
molar teeth is known as wisdom teeth
 2. Pharynx
• It is wide opening at back of mouth cavity.
• The pharynx is divided for descriptive purposes into three
parts, the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx.
• It leads to two openings : gullet and glottis.
• There is a muscular flap called epiglottis which closes
glottis when food is swallowed.
• There are 2 openings of internal nares above and two
openings of Eustachian tubes at the sides.
• It is the only part common to digestive and respiratory
system.
• For the digestive system, its muscular walls function in the
process of swallowing, and it serves as a pathway for the
movement of food from the mouth to the esophagus.
 3. Oesophagus
• It is a long narrow muscular tube which connect
mouth to stomach.
• It is about 25 cm long.
• It pierces diaphragm to open into stomach.
• The upper and lower ends of the esophagus are
closed by sphincter muscles.
• It undergoes peristalsis to carry down food and
water or fluid (bolus).
 4. Stomach
• It is a large, curved, J- shaped, wide, muscular elastic bag situated below
diaphragm on left side.
• It measures about 30 cm long and 15 cm wide.
• It is divided into two parts
[Link]: it is so called because it lies near heart. In between oesophagus and
cardiac part of stomach there is cardiac sphincter. It is further divided into fundus
and body.
Fundus: it extends superiorly from the cardiac part. It is usually filled with air.
Body: it is main part of stomach.
[Link] part: it is distal part of stomach. it opens into duodenum. It opens and
closes several times. At the time of opening, a small amount of partially digested
food(chyme) is passed into duodenum.
• Gastric gland secretes gastric juice.
• In the stomach, gastric muscle contraction consists of a churning movement that
breaks down the bolus and mixes it with gastric juice and peristaltic waves that
propel the stomach contents towards the pylorus.
Functions of the Stomach

• Temporary storage allowing time for the digestive enzymes, pepsins, to act.
• Chemical digestion — pepsins convert proteins to polypeptides.
• Mechanical breakdown — the three smooth muscle layers enable the
stomach to act as a churn, gastric juice is added and the contents are
liquefied to chime.
• Performs limited absorption of water, alcohol and some lipid-soluble drugs
• Non-specific defense against microbes — provided by hydrochloric acid in
gastric juice.
• Preparation of iron for absorption further along the track — the acid
environment of the stomach solubilizes iron salts, which is required before
iron can be absorbed
• Production of intrinsic factor needed for absorption of vitamin B12 in the
terminal ileum
• Regulation of the passage of gastric contents into the duodenum. When the
chyme is sufficiently acidified and liquefied, the pyloric antrum forces small
jets of gastric contents through the pyloric sphincter into the duodenum.
 5. Small intestine
• The small intestine is continuous with the stomach at the
pyloric sphincter and leads into the large intestine at the
ileocaecal valve.
• It is a little over 5 meters long and lies in the abdominal
cavity surrounded by the large intestine.
• In the small intestine, the chemical digestion of food is
completed and most of the absorption of nutrients takes
place.
• It is divisible into 3 parts.
[Link] – it is c- shaped and about 25 cm long. It
receives bile juice and pancreatic juice through common bile
duct.
[Link] - it is about 2.5 meter in length. It is coiled part.
[Link] – it is about 3.5 meter long. It is highly coiled part.
Both jejunum and ileum are suspended by mesenteries. The
inner wall of ileum has number of folds called villi. The villi
are tiny finger-like projections of the mucosal layer into the
intestinal lumen, about 0.5 to 1 mm [Link] walls consist
of columnar epithelial cells, or enterocytes, with tiny
microvilli (1 μm long) on their free border. It is mainly for
 6. Large intestine
• It is about 1.5 meter long and Its lumen is larger than that
of the small intestine. It forms an arch around the coiled-
up small intestine.
• It is divisible into following parts;
1. Caecum: It is pouch like structure about 6 cm long. There is
ileocaecal valve preventing back flow. Attached to caecum is a
slender vermiform appendix of about 10 cm long. It is vestigial
in man but functional in herbivores. The inflammation of
appendix is called appendicitis at the time of infection.
2. Colon: It is inverted U shaped and divisible into
• Ascending colon: It is the first part on right side. It moves
upward from caecum.
• Transverse colon: It is horizontal part.
• Descending colon: It moves down at left side. It descends
down
• Pelvic colon: It is s shaped or sigmoid. Undigested material
can remain in colon for about 36 hours.
• Colon is for absorption of water mainly.
3. Rectum: small muscular region, straight, about 15 cm long.
It opens to the exterior through anus. Undigested material
remains here for a short time. The anus is guarded by 2
sphincters Throughout the alimentary canal, mucous glands
 Digestive glands:
• Associated with digestion, there are following
digestive glands which secrete enzymes
serving the chemical digestion of food.
[Link] gland
2. Gastric gland
3. Liver
4. Pancreas
5. Intestinal gland
 1. Salivary gland
• The human salivary gland is an
exocrine gland.
• The salivary gland includes- the
paired parotid, submandibular, and
sublingual glands.
• The major function of the salivary
glands is to secrete saliva, which
plays a significant role in lubrication,
digestion, immunity, and the overall
maintenance of homeostasis within
the human body.
• There are three pairs of salivary
glands.
1. Parotid gland
2. Sub-mandibular gland
3. Sub-lingual gland
• There is one pair of Parotid gland. It is the largest of the
salivary glands. It is situated near the ears. Stenson’s duct of
Parotid gland opens near the upper 2nd molar.
• One pair of sublingual glands is small and situated beneath
tongue. Ducts of Rivinus open into floor of oral cavity.
• One pair of submandibular glands are medium sized and
situated at angle of lower jaw. Wharton’s duct open near the
lower central incisors.
• Salivary glands secrete saliva into oral cavity.
• Saliva is slightly acidic pH 6.8. About 1 to 1.5 Liter of saliva is
secreted daily. It contains 98.5-99% water and 1-1.5% dense
residue. Saliva contains starch digesting enzyme salivary
amylase also called ptyalin. It also consists of mucus,
lysozyme, mineral salts such as Na+, K+, HCO3-,
immunoglobulin (IgA),etc.
Function of Saliva
• Moistens oral mucosa: Saliva moisturize the oral cavity and it is an
important non immune defense mechanism in oral cavity.
• Swallowing: Saliva moistens dry food and cools hot food and make
easy for swallowing and digestion
• Stimulation of taste bud: Saliva provides a medium for dissolved foods
to stimulate the taste buds.
• Buffer: Saliva has a high concentration of bicarbonate ions and acts as
physiological buffer
• Digestion: Saliva contains Ptyalin (salivary amylase) that digest starch
• Antimicrobial activity: Saliva controls bacterial flora of the oral cavity.
Lysozyme, Secretory IgA, and Salivary Peroxidase present in saliva have
antimicrobial property.
• Mineralization: Saliva contains high concentration of calcium and
phosphate, which helps in mineralization of teeth.
• Oral hygiene: saliva helps mouth and teeth clean
• Protection: Saliva protects the teeth from dental carries.
 2. Gastric gland
• Gastric glands are the branched tubular glands
found in mucosa of stomach wall
• They secrete gastric juice
• Argentophilic cells found in the pyloric part of the
stomach produce the gastrin hormone which
controls the secretion of gastric juice.
• There are three types of gastric glands:
1. parietal (oxyntic) cells: secretes HCl
2. Chief or peptic or zymogen cells: secretes
proenzymes pepsinogen and prorenin, and gastric
lipase
• Gastric juice is light colored, thin and transparent fluid
• It consists of Water (90%), mineral salts, mucus secreted by
goblet cells in the glands and on the stomach surface,
hydrochloric acid (0.5%), Intrinsic factor, inactive enzymes
like pepsinogen, prorenin, etc.
• A normal person secretes about 2-3 Litres of gastric juice
daily
• It is highly acidic, pH 1.8 in adults and pH 5.0 in infants.
1. Function of HCl:
Makes food acidic
Activates inactive pepsinogen into active pepsin and prorenin
to renin.
Destroys bacteria and microbes in food
Digests hard substance like bone
Controls opening and closing of pyloric sphincter
 3. Liver
• It is the largest gland.
• It lies in the upper right side of abdominal cavity just below diaphragm.
• It is reddish brown and weighs about 1.4 to 1.5 Kg.
• It has two lobes right and left separated by falciform ligament. The right
lobe is further divisible into right lobe proper, quadrate lobe and
caudate lobe.
• The liver lobes are made up of small lobules called hepatic lobules.
Hepatic lobules are separated by Glission’s capsule.
• Liver cells or hepatic cells or hepatocytes are arranged radially and
separated by hepatic sinusoids (wide capillaries). Attached to liver cells
there are Kupffer’s cells which are phagocytic in nature.
• Gall bladder is a pear shaped sac like structure. It stores bile juice.
• The right and left hepatic ducts join to form common hepatic duct. It
joins the cystic duct which arises from GB. The cystic duct and other
hepatic duct join to form bile duct. It runs down to join the pancreatic
duct to form hepato-pancreatic duct. It opens into duodenum.
Functions of the liver
• Secretion of bile. The hepatocytes synthesize the constituents of bile from the mixed arterial and venous blood in the
sinusoids. These include bile salts, bile pigments, and cholesterol.
• Carbohydrate metabolism. Conversion of glucose to glycogen in the presence of insulin, and converting liver glycogen
back to glucose in the presence of glucagon. These changes are important regulators of the blood glucose level.
• Fat metabolism. Desaturation of fat i.e. converts stored fat to a form in which it can be used by the tissues to provide
energy.
• Protein metabolism. Deamination of amino acids removes the nitrogenous portion from the amino acids not required
for the formation of new protein; urea is formed from this nitrogenous portion which is excreted in the urine.
• It also breaks down the genetic material of worn-out cells of the body to form uric acid which is excreted in the urine.
• Transamination — removes the nitrogenous portion of amino acids and attaches it to other carbohydrate molecules
forming new non-essential amino acids.
• Synthesis of plasma proteins and most of the blood clotting factors from the available amino acids occur in the liver.
• Breakdown of erythrocytes and defense against microbes. This is carried out by phagocytic Kupffer cells (hepatic
macrophages) in the sinusoids.
• Detoxification of drugs and noxious substances. These include ethanol (alcohol) and toxins produced by microbes.
• Metabolism of ethanol.
• Inactivation of hormones. These include insulin, glucagon, cortisol, aldosterone, thyroid, and sex hormones.
• Synthesis of vitamin A from carotene. (Carotene is the provitamin found in some plants, e.g. carrots and green leaves
of vegetables).
• Production of heat. The liver uses a considerable amount of energy, has a high metabolic rate, and produces a great
deal of heat. It is the main heat-producing organ of the body.
• It is involved in the storage of:
- fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E, K
- iron, copper
- some water-soluble vitamins, e.g. riboflavin, niacin,
- pyridoxine, folic acid, and vitamin B12.
• Bile juice, secreted by the liver, is an alkaline fluid with bitter
taste
• About 500-1000 ml of bile juice is secreted per day according to
the diet
• It consists of water (86%) and minerals (14%).
• Minerals are the bile salts (sodium salt of glycocholic acid and
taurocholic acid), bile pigments (bilirubin and biliverdin),
cholesterol, lecithin, inorganic salts and alkaline phosphatase, etc.
• Functions of bile:
 Neutralize the acidic chyme that enters intestine from stomach
 Creates alkaline medium in duodenum in order to activate the
pancreatic lipase
 Emulsifies fat and makes fat particles accessible to the action of
lipase
 Helps to absorb the products of fat digestion
 Keeps bacteria under control
 4. Pancreas
• It is soft, lobulated, greenish pink gland.
• It weighs about 60 grams, 2.5 cm wide and 12 to 15 cm long.
• It located posterior to stomach. It comprises head, body and tail.
Head lies in the curve of duodenum, body behind the stomach and
tail reaches the spleen near left kidney.
• The main pancreatic duct is formed by smaller ducts within pancreas.
The main pancreatic duct open into hepato-pancreatic ampulla.
• It has two parts, Exocrine part and Endocrine part.
• Exocrine part consists of rounded lobules(acini) which secrete alkaline
pancreatic juice pH 8.4. About 500 to 800 ml of pancreatic juice
secreted every day. The pancreatic juice contains proenzyme such as
trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen and some enzymes like pancreatic
amylase, DNase, RNase, Lipase etc
• Endocrine part consists of islet of Langerhans. About one million islets
are found mostly in tail.
• Pancreatic juice is the most potent digestive
enzyme.
• It contains all types of digestive enzymes to
hydrolyze different kinds of food
• A normal person secretes about 500-800 mL
of pancreatic juice everyday
• It consists of water (98%) and solid substances
(2%) which includes carbohydrate, protein, fat
hydrolyzing enzymes. It also has high
proportion of NaHCO3 and Na2HPO4 that
makes the juice alkaline with pH 7.5-8.0
5. Intestinal gland
 Physiology of Digestion
• The process by which food is broken down into simple chemical compounds that
can be absorbed and used as nutrients or eliminated by the body is called
digestion.
• The processes of digestion include six activities: ingestion, propulsion, mechanical
or physical digestion, chemical digestion, absorption, and defecation.
1. Ingestion
• The entry of food into the alimentary canal through the mouth is called ingestion.
Simply put, the act of eating and drinking is called ingestion.
2. Propulsion
• Propulsion refers to the movement of food through the digestive tract.
• It includes both the voluntary process of swallowing and the involuntary process of
peristalsis.
• Peristalsis consists of sequential, alternating waves of contraction and relaxation of
alimentary wall smooth muscles, which act to propel food along.
• These waves also play a role in mixing food with digestive juices. This both mixes
and moves the contents along the alimentary tract.
• Also, the act of swallowing, the last voluntary act until defecation, is an example of
3. Mechanical Digestion
• Digestion is a purely physical process that does not change the chemical nature of the
food.
• Instead, it makes the food smaller to increase both surface area and mobility.
• It includes mastication, or chewing, as well as tongue movements that help break food
into smaller bits and mix food with saliva.
• The mechanical churning of food in the stomach serves to further break it apart and
expose more of its surface area to digestive juices, creating an acidic “soup” called chyme.
• Segmentation, which occurs mainly in the small intestine, consists of localized contractions
of circular muscle of the muscularis layer of the alimentary canal. These contractions
isolate small sections of the intestine, moving their contents back and forth while
continuously subdividing, breaking up, and mixing the contents.
• By moving food back and forth in the intestinal lumen, segmentation mixes food with
digestive juices and facilitates absorption.
4. Chemical digestion
• Chemical digestion of food by enzymes present in secretions produced by glands and
accessory organs of the digestive system.
• In chemical digestion, starting in the mouth, digestive secretions break down complex
food molecules into their chemical building blocks (for example, proteins into separate
amino acids).
• These secretions vary in composition but typically contain water, various enzymes, acids,
and salts. The process is completed in the small intestine.
 Digestion In the Mouth
• After ingestion, the food is chewed and mixed with saliva,
which contains enzymes that begin breaking down the
carbohydrates in the food plus some lipid digestion via
lingual lipase.
• Saliva contains the enzyme amylase that begins the
breakdown of complex sugars, reducing them to the
disaccharide maltose.
• Chewing by the teeth increases the surface area of the food
and allows an appropriately sized bolus to be produced.
• Food leaves the mouth when the tongue and pharyngeal
muscles propel it into the esophagus.
 in Pharynx and Oesophagus
• The presence of the bolus in the pharynx
stimulates a wave of peristalsis which propels the
bolus through the esophagus to the stomach.
• The walls of the esophagus are lubricated by
mucus which assists the passage of the bolus
during the peristaltic contraction of the muscular
wall.
• The cardiac sphincter guarding the entrance to the
stomach relaxes to allow the descending bolus to
pass into the stomach.
 Digestion In the Stomach
• When a meal has been eaten the food accumulates in the stomach in layers, the last part of the
meal remaining in the fundus for some time.
• Numerous gastric glands are situated below the surface in the mucous membrane of the stomach.
They consist of specialized cells that secrete gastric juice into the stomach.
• Gastric juice has an acidic pH and consists of water, mineral salts, mucus secreted by goblet cells,
hydrochloric acid secreted by parietal cells, intrinsic factor, and inactive enzyme precursors:
pepsinogens secreted by chief cells in the glands.
• The hydrochloric acid present in the juice acidifies the food and stops the action of salivary
amylase, kills ingested microbes, and provides the acid environment needed for effective digestion
by pepsins.
• Further, pepsinogens are activated to pepsins by hydrochloric acid and by pepsins already present
in the stomach. They begin the digestion of proteins, breaking them into smaller molecules.
• Mixing with gastric juice takes place gradually and it may be some time before the food is
sufficiently acidified to stop the action of salivary amylase.
• Gastric muscle contraction consists of a churning movement that breaks down the bolus and
mixes it with gastric juice and peristaltic waves that propel the stomach contents towards the
pylorus.
• When the stomach is active the pyloric sphincter closes.
• Strong peristaltic contraction of the pyloric antrum forces gastric contents, after they are
sufficiently liquefied, through the pylorus into the duodenum in small spurts.
• By slowing the emptying rate of the stomach, the contents of the duodenum become more
thoroughly mixed with bile and pancreatic juice.
 Digestion In the Small Intestine
• When acid chyme passes into the small intestine it is mixed with pancreatic juice,
bile, and intestinal juice, and is in contact with the enterocytes of the villi.
• When a meal has been eaten the hormone CCK is secreted by the duodenum during the
intestinal phase of secretion of gastric juice. This stimulates the contraction of the gall
bladder and relaxation of the hepatopancreatic sphincter, enabling the bile and pancreatic
juice to pass into the duodenum together.
 Digestion by Pancreatic Juice
• Pancreatic juice enters the duodenum at the hepatopancreatic ampulla. Pancreatic juice is
alkaline (pH 8) because it contains significant quantities of bicarbonate ions, which are
alkaline in solution.
• When acid stomach contents enter the duodenum they are mixed with pancreatic juice
and bile and the pH is raised to between 6 and 8. This is the pH at which the pancreatic
enzymes, amylase, and lipase, act most effectively.
• Digestion of proteins. Trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen are inactive enzyme precursors
activated by enterokinase (enteropeptidase), an enzyme in the microvilli, which converts
them into the active proteolytic enzymes trypsin and chymotrypsin. These enzymes
convert polypeptides to tripeptides, dipeptides, and amino acids.
• Digestion of carbohydrates. Pancreatic amylase converts all digestible polysaccharides
(starches) not acted upon by salivary amylase to disaccharides.
• Digestion of fats. Lipase converts fats into fatty acids and glycerol. To aid the action of
 Digestion In the Small Intestine
 Digestion by Bile Juice
• Bile, secreted by the liver has a pH of 8 and between 500 and 1000 ml are secreted daily. It consists of water,
mineral salts, mucus, bile salts, bile pigments (mainly bilirubin), and cholesterol.
• The bile salts, sodium taurocholate, and sodium glycocholate emulsify fats in the small intestine. The breakdown of
fat globules in the duodenum into tiny droplets, which provides a larger surface area on which the enzyme
pancreatic lipase can act to digest the fats into fatty acids and glycerol is called bile emulsification.
• Fatty acids are insoluble in water, which makes them very difficult to absorb through the intestinal wall. Bile salts
also make fatty acids soluble, enabling both these and fat-soluble vitamins (e.g. vitamin K) to be readily absorbed.
 Digestion by Intestinal juice
• Alkaline intestinal juice (pH 7.8 to 8.0) assists in raising the pH of the intestinal contents to between 6.5 and 7.5.
• Enterokinase activates pancreatic peptidases such as trypsin which convert some polypeptides to amino acids and
some to smaller peptides. The final stage of breakdown to amino acids of all peptides occurs inside the
enterocytes.
• Lipase completes the digestion of emulsified fats to fatty acids and glycerol partly in the intestine and partly in the
enterocytes.
• Sucrase, maltase, and lactase complete the digestion of carbohydrates by converting disaccharides such as sucrose,
maltose, and lactose to monosaccharides inside the enterocytes.
• The intestinal glands are simple tubular glands situated below the surface between the villi. The cells of the glands
migrate upwards to form the walls of the villi replacing those at the tips as they are rubbed off by the intestinal
contents.
• During migration, the cells form digestive enzymes that lodge in the microvilli and, together with intestinal juice,
complete the chemical digestion of carbohydrates, protein, and fats.
• Thus, in the small intestine the digestion of all the nutrients is completed:
– carbohydrates are broken down to monosaccharides
– proteins are broken down to amino acids
– fats are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol.
5. Absorption
• This is the process by which digested food substances pass through the walls of
some organs of the alimentary canal into the blood and lymph capillaries for
circulation around the body.
• It takes place primarily within the small intestine (ileum).
• It is carried out by passive, active or facilitated transport mechanisms.
• Water moves by osmosis; small fat soluble substances, e.g. fatty acids and
glycerol, are able to diffuse through cell membranes; while others are generally
transported inside the villi by other mechanisms.
• There, most nutrients are absorbed from the lumen of the alimentary canal
into the bloodstream through the epithelial cells that make up the mucosa.
• In the large intestine absorption of water continues until the familiar semisolid
consistency of feces is achieved.
• Mineral salts, vitamins, and some drugs are also absorbed into the blood
capillaries from the large intestine.
• The large intestines descend to the rectum and its endpoint at the anal canal.
6. Elimination
• Food substances that have been eaten but cannot be digested and absorbed
are excreted by the bowel as feces.