LESSON 1.

THE PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATION
Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

Explain the meaning of public administration;
Define public administration as a field of study and as a
practice; as art and science;
Describe the characters of public administration;
Distinguish public administration from private
administration; and
Describe the impact of public administration to the lives of
the people.
 Definition of Public Administration
• The literature of public administration offers various definition of the term reflecting the most
dominant mode of thinking and school of thought in the study and discipline of PA in each era it
represents.

• To acquaint, there are literature that are most frequently cited examining the meaning of public
administration. According to Waldo (1955), public administration has a dual usage; as a field of
practice and as a field of study. It means that public administration is both a professional and
scholarly discipline (Ocampo, 1993).

• Public Administration is a profession (practice) as it involves the activity or process of

administering public affairs and carry out the governmental functions (example: enacting a law
and making a certain decision for a policy). Public Administration as a Scholarly Discipline
(Study) is the systematic study and the improvement of government capacity and practice in
formulating policies, making decisions, implementing them and securing the desired results. As a
scholarly pursuit, it is concerned with discovering and advancing theoretical and practical
knowledge in the field using scientific method (example: empirical study, case methods, analysis
and surveys).
• Public Administration is considered as an applied discipline because it has practical use
for government in improving government programs especially those who have career in
public service as it trains them to be good and efficient public administrators. The
following are the field/topics that can be explored in the discipline:

[Link] resource development of certain agency;

[Link] of government institutions;
[Link] style of public administrators;
[Link], goals and expected outcome; and
[Link] of the government to the people

• The discipline of public administration is also considered as Art, it involves creativity,

leadership and a sense of judgement known as intangibles in administration and Science,
a body of knowledge or theories that can explain certain phenomena or variables in the
field of Public Administration. This is also built with empirical research using systematic
method (Waldo,1955).
 Public Administration as an Art and Science, focuses its perspective of
creating formal authority structure and allocates duties and functions putting
in their right perspectives the human and material resources to achieve the
organizational set of goals.
The following are some of the definitions of Public Administration
from different scholars: Public Administration as the detailed and
systematic application of law it means that every particular application of law
is an act of administration. - Wilson (1887)
Public Administration as the management of men and materials in the
accomplishment of the purpose of the state.” – White (1926)
Pubic Administration as the Organization and management of men and
materials to achieve the purpose of the government.”- Waldo (1955)
Public Administration:
[Link] cooperative group effort in a public setting;
[Link] all three branches – executive, legislative, and judiciary – and
their inter-relationships;
[Link] an important role in the formulation of public policy and thus,
part of the political process;
[Link] Administration is more important than, and also different in
significant ways from private administration;
[Link] Administration as a field of study and practice has been much
influenced in recent years by the human-relations approach.
[Link] closely related/associated with numerous private groups and
individuals in providing services to the community.” – Caiden (1971)
“Public Administration as a policy making. But it is not autonomous
exclusive of isolated policy making. It is a policy making on a field
where mighty forces contend, forces engendered in and by the society. It
is a policy making subject to still other and various policy makers. - Fry
(1989)

Public Administration may be viewed to refer not only to those

activities in carrying out or implement the policies and programs of the
government but also to the process and contents of these policies and
programs. Public Administration may refer to cooperative human action
whether within the public bureaucracy, the private sector or NGO aimed
to deliver services to the people.”” – De Guzman (1993)
 Development of Public Administration
Public administration is as old as the history of many nations. It existed in
ancient Greece, Mesopotamia, Egypt and China. Administration was present
when the leaders of nations built their cities, constructed their massive
infrastructure projects, organized huge armies, managed vast territories and
codified their laws. These human activities however were considered as part of
the political economy, military organizations, or religious activities (Caiden,
1971).
Rome is considered the first administrative empire. Early bureaucratic in
ancient Rome’s contribution and state building were based more on its superior
military and engineering powers.
Public Administration first came into use in the 16th century in
monarchial Europe when distinction was made between king’s administrative
policy of public affairs and management of his private households. As the church
grew and state were separated, and government grew to take care of an
increasingly diverse societal activities modern public administration emerged
(Caiden 1971).
 According to Caiden (1971), the first systematic studies in
contemporary public administration were done in Prussia. These studies are
taught by professors of cameral science, designed to prepare potential public
officials of Prussia for governmental service that serves as the formal
machinery of government.
In the United States, the Public administration study was propelled by
the civil service reforms during the 18th century. It is during the period when
there was a struggle to limit the spoils system and partisan politics that
reigned over the bureaucracy by rewarding political party members with
government job appointments as opposed to establishing a civil service
system where appointments and tenure are based on merit. This was the
context when Woodrow Wilson in 1887 wrote in his essay “the Study of
Public Administration” that called for separating politics from administration
so that government would be able to proceed with its expected task (Politics-
Administration Dichotomy).
 The movement stimulated serious and concerted inquiry in the practice of
Public Administration. The following are the significant development of Civil
Service Administration reform in the USA
[Link] of the New York Bureau of Municipal Research founded by Civic Leader in New
York reform movement. The bureau conducted and publicized surveys of governmental
agencies and programs and trained persons for public service careers.
[Link] Goodnow – author of Politics and Administration, A Study in Government (1900)
espoused the functional distinction of politics and administration.
[Link] D. White – Published his book Introduction to the study of Public Administration
(1926) that focused on the administrative organization and government management services
such as personnel and financial administration.
[Link] W. Taylor – provided ideas in scientific management or the “one best way” of
carrying out a task, greatly influenced the focus of administrative studies. The study
concentrated on the structure and processes of public agencies and/or improving
organizations, procedures and the quality of the public servants
 After World War II, a new understanding of public administration
came into view. Scholars recognized that there are much more to public
administration than government management processes and technique.
Pubic Administration study branched out to the analysis of organizations as
a social system focusing on the behavior and relationship of people in an
organization..
To sum up, Reyes (1955) cited that (1) Public Administration study
expanded its coverage to include not only the executive branch, its
processes and activities but also the legislative and judicial departments. (2)
The concerns of Public Administration study and practice have grown to
encompass not only the internal aspects of administration but also the
societal context and impact of government in the people it serves, and (3)
the term Public Administration has moved from its limited definitions that
refers only to the operations and activities of government to one that has
developed into a distinct field of study
 Politics-Administration Dichotomy
Woodrow Wilson, the Father of Public Administration is one of the ardent proponents of
making public administration a distinct academic discipline. In his essay entitled “The Study of
Administration” (1887), he emphasized that administration as a field of business must be removed
from the hurry and strife of politics.
Wilson acknowledged the call for the separation of two (2) major functions of the
government: Administration (referring to the executive branch of government) should be free from
political interventions from the legislature in the execution of the will of the state. Politics (referring
to the legislative branch of government) should be concentrated on public policy making which is
the expression of the will of the state. He also called for a serious study of the science of
administration in the following field:
[Link] of politics from administration;
[Link]-like management; and
[Link] a generic approach
This advocacy finds expression and reinforcement in the works of Goodnow (1900s) and
White (1926) who also advocated the separation of politics from administration and the use of
scientific principles for the management of government affairs.
 Frank Goodnow (1900), was founder and first president of the American
Political Science Associations. Goodnow was very much concerned about the
negative effect of the spoil system on government administration, he recognized that
the spoil system impaired administrative efficiency and was a threat to democratic
government. Thus, he advocates for the dichotomy principles as it allows public
administration to emerge as a self-conscious field of study, intellectually and
institutionally differentiated from politics. According to Goodnow, there are certain
areas of administration that should be isolated from politics, these includes the
following:
[Link] of justice
[Link] and scientific information gathering
[Link] administrative management issues.
These functions should be performed by politically neutral, tenured and competent
individuals who are to act in a semi-scientific, quasi-judicial and quasi-business-like
fashion.
 Leonard D. White (1926) wrote the first text in the field of public administration
in his book “Introduction to the Study of Public Administration”. It is one of the most
influential texts in public and administration. His work avoided the potential pitfalls of the
politics-administration dichotomy but rather concentrated on emphasizing the managerial
phase of administration. He defined four (4) major assumptions about public
administration: (1) the study of administration should start from the base of management
rather than law. (2) Administration is an art but there (3) is importance in considering it as a
science. (4) Administration is the heart of the problem of modern government.

The need for dichotomy is more than an epistemic question and the birth of the
public administration as a field of study more than an academic milestone. The root of the
debate brings with it a nobler cause, the call for an administration that is ready to listen to
the people’s demands, and for public administrators who will serve as the voice of the
marginalized that will rise to the challenge of upholding good governance.
 Difference of Public and Private
Administration
Public administration must be distinguished from private administration.
According to Tapales (1998), the often-cited difference between the public
administration and private administration is on the goal or mission. The former is
service oriented and the latter is guided primarily by profits. Another different lies
in the nature of goods and services they provide. Public administration provides
what are called public goods which can be enjoyed by all regardless of whether
they have money to pay for them or not. Private administration on the other hand
provides goods and services to those who can afford to pay for them. Using this
criterion, it is quite selective in whom it is going to deliver goods and services to.

According to Caiden (1971), public administration has peculiarities that

separate it from other institutions, namely:
1st – it is unavoidable. Citizens cannot escape the reach of its authority
and have to deal with it in their daily life,
2nd – it can compel obedience from the citizens because it has a legal
monopoly of coercive power. The power it enjoys is generally accepted
and considered legitimate by the people and necessary to maintain a
stable society.
3rd – the activities carried out by Public Administration have priority.
It means that the activities of Public Administration are important and
significant in making society a better place to live in.
Public Administration must be able to perform its functions
with efficacy so that no activities will be jeopardized.
Identifying what activities require priority attention and budget
than others will certainly pose a problem to public administration
because resources are scarce.
4th – having the largest single multipurpose organization, Public Administration can
provide the people with a wide range of public service.
5th – Public Administration is based on Political Leadership. It determines the activities
it performs, the services to provide, the mission and objective to follow, the
organization which will be carried out, and budget to support them. In the political
system, it is the elective officials, local and national, who make up the political
leadership.
6th – Measuring the performance of Public Administration is difficult due to its
political nature and the kind of functions and processes it performs. Reading certain
issues in the newspaper does not show the effectiveness and efficiency of the public
administrators while in private sectors, their performance can easily be measures
through their profit or output.
7th – There are public expectations which public administration must meet but which
are not heaped upon the private sector. The basic expectation is the protection and
promotion of public interest at all times, Public Officials are also expected to possess
virtues and attributes and, most often, the public expects that they observe these in their
public and private life. They are expected to be honest, dedicated, efficient, courteous
etc.
 Fields of Public Administration
According to Brillantes and Fernandez (2008), there are
various traditional subfields of public administration including
the emerging fields in response to a rapidly changing
environment. However, even before going into the sub-fields
of public administration, it is imperative to recognize that the
public administration itself, has been considered as a sub-field
of political science.
 Traditional Sub-fields of Political Science
The following have been considered as the traditional sub-fields of political
science: political theory, international relations and politics; comparative politics;
public administration.

Political theory is a study and analysis of political ideas of significant

political thinkers. It is also a search for knowledge, of political thoughts during
various historical periods, namely, Ancient, Medieval/Christian, and Modern.
Among the major philosophers and theorists who explored this field of political
science are Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Augustine, Aquinas, Machiavelli, Hobbes,
Locke, Rousseau, and many other political thinkers. It is recognized that their
political ideas shaped the political institutions, law, order, liberty, justice, and the
quality of life into concrete historical circumstances.
International Relations and Politics
As a subfield of political science, international relations have zeroed in on the
relations between and among nation states and how such relations are defined. Power
has always been traditionally considered a factor in the determination of international
relations and politics. The role of international organizations such as the United Nations,
including other multilateral bodies such as the World Bank, the International Monetary
Fund, and closer to home, the Asian Development Bank, in shaping the power relations.
is an aspect that is also addressed in the study of international relations and politics.
Comparative politics
is a study of contemporary politics and political trends in selected countries and
regions around the world and then comparing and critically analyzing the variety of
ways that these countries have chosen to shape their political institutions and processes,
assess the costs and benefits of their choices and address common problems, including
the challenges of globalization, with an eye toward identifying processes, practices, and
policies which might be “exportable” ideas for countries to borrow from one another.
Public Administration
as a discipline emerged out of a broader discipline which is Political Science. Reyes
(1993) considers it as a “child of political science” that is mature enough to be treated
separately or independently of its mother.” Public administration is both a field of study, or
a discipline, and a field of practice, or an occupation.
Traditionally, the discipline of public administration itself has had the following
sub-fields: organization and management; public personnel administration; local
government administration; policy analysis and program administration; public enterprise
management; voluntary sector management and spatial information management. The
following discusses each of these subfields:
[Link] and Management
is one of the oldest subfields of public administration. It basically focuses on sub-
areas like organization theory and practice, dynamics of organization, decision-making in
administration, leadership and other sub-areas. It particularly discusses the theories,
processes and techniques involved in the organization and management of the national
government and its agencies. It also explores modern management techniques such as
reinventing, reengineering and other improvement methods in organization and
management like total quality management (TQM), which has largely contributed to public
administration reforms.
[Link] Personnel Administration
is consisting of administrative processes, in the traditional public administration,
organization and management and personnel administration were emphasized as salient features of
study in public administration. Personnel administration has widened its scope and evolved into
human resource management or human resource development. The inspiration that not only these
two fields complement but supplement each other put them together into what is now called
“Organization Studies.”
[Link] Fiscal Administration
belongs to the branch of economics but that was during the earlier times. With the
emergence of the field of public administration, much interest has been directed towards fiscal
administration. Again, this subfield of public administration covers a wide range of issues and topics
affecting government operations like taxation, public expenditures and borrowing, resource
allocation, revenue administration, auditing and intergovernmental relations. As Briones (1996) puts
it, “public fiscal administration embraces the formulation, implementation, and evaluation of policies
and decisions on taxation and revenue administration; resource allocation, budgeting, and public
expenditure; public borrowing and debt management; and accounting and auditing.” Through the
years, many researches were devoted on these topics and issues; the government has also introduced
reforms like reforms in tax administration, value added tax (VAT), expanded value added tax (E-
VAT), procurement reforms, the medium-term expenditure framework (MTEF), accounting reforms,
re-engineering the bureaucracy program (REBP), transforming local finance, and many others.
[Link] Government Administration
is another distinct subfield of public administration. In studying local government
administration, the concepts of decentralization are taken into account. Decentralization, as a
process, is one of the widely researched topics in promoting development and democratic
governance. Administrative organizations and operations of local governments; the structure
and processes of regional administration are likewise discussed. In particular, local
government administration may also include topics on theoretical and empirical perspectives
of local government and regional administration, community and institutional development,
local government systems/procedure, intergovernmental dynamics, local public finance or
local fiscal administration, local economic promotion, local and regional development
planning, local government innovations and many others
As the field evolved, and in response to the changing demands of the time, the following
are the new sub-fields of Public Administration:
[Link] Analysis and Program Administration, generally, policy studies can focus on the
content of public policy, its processes, models, theories and approaches of public policy its
impact as well as evaluation of public programs and projects. Other significant concepts,
principles and techniques for systematic analysis and decision - making in public policy and
management are also considered in policy analysis. Dye (1995) said that certain theoretical
approaches and models have been introduced in studying public policy which include
institutional, process, group, elite, rational, incremental, game theory, public choice and
systems model.
[Link] Enterprise Management
Privatization is one of the foci of this area of public administration. Other topics include
the nature and processes of public enterprises; the relationship between the government and the
public enterprise sector; issues on managerial autonomy, public accountability, corporate social
responsibility and the role of the state in the economy. In the graduate level, courses include
financial management of public enterprise and management of public enterprises.
[Link] Sector Management
Voluntary sector management can be referred to similar terms such as “voluntary sector,
“third sector”, “non-profit organizations,” “non-governmental organizations,” and “civil society
organizations.”
[Link] Information Management,
in delivering public goods and services efficiently and effectively, it is very important
that we will be aided with support tools enabling the use of all kinds of spatial data/information.
With the study and utilization of geographic information system (GIS), data/information can be
processed immediately and can be transported easily. This technology is currently used by
many government agencies and corporations; thus, the introduction and popularization of some
technology terms in government such as e-government, e-commerce, geo-visualization, e-
finance, among others. Other systems are also introduced in SIM like global positioning
systems and remote sensing.
 Public administration indeed has evolved both as a scholarly
discipline and as a profession. It has reached wider dimensions of
governance, from political, economic, social, cultural aspects of
public management. In the executive branch, for instance, it has
retained traditional functions (management functions like planning,
organizing) and personnel management but explored possibilities in
organizational development, fiscal administration (budgeting,
accounting, auditing) and public policy and program administration
which is concerned with the processes and analysis of public policy.
 LESSON 2.
EVOLUTION OF THE DISCIPLINE OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of lesson, the students should be able to:

Comprehend the changing paradigms of Public Administration;

Be acquainted with the theories, approaches, concepts and principles
of Public Administration;
Develop awareness of the administrative theories and practices; and
Understand public administration theory and concepts from multiple
perspectives.
Evolution of the Discipline of Public Administration
The evolution of the study of Public Administration has been characterized by shift in
theoretical bases using a combination of the various categorization used by some Public
Administration scholars to trace the growth and development of the study and to contrast how the
governance paradigm emerged from the intellectual ferment in the evolution of the discipline.
The evolution of Public Administration is lifted form the following school of thoughts:
[Link] Management/Bureaucratic School
Classical administration theory centers around the division of labor. This theoretical
approach defines “modernity” as the increasing specialization of labor. This means that a central
bureaucracy must exist that keeps these functions coordinated and connected through an impersonal
chain of command. Therefore, the emphasis in this approach is on both the decentralization of
functions and specialties, and the centralization of administrative command to keep functions
working.
[Link] classical/Human Relations School
The theory is commonly referred to as human relations school. Neoclassical theory was an
attempt at incorporating the behavioral science into management in order to solve the problem of just
focusing on production, structure and technology. Neoclassical theory concentrated on the shift from
mechanical view of organization to be a more humanistic perspective in the workplace, their
feelings, motivations and aspirations.
[Link] Administration (DA) and New Public Administration (NPA)
The concept came at the height of the political upheaval and turbulence of the late 1960s
and early 1970s, in which Western societies especially the USA witnessed many social problems:
disturbance, instability, confusion — and the like. The conventional public administration with its
pillars—economy and efficiency—was unable to give suitable response to the escalating turmoil and
the complications that arose from the political turbulence. Reality began to dawn on some of the best
generation of young scholars of public administration that they began to question their discipline and
profession. Eventually, a movement was developed within the discipline in search of a new public
administration—one sensitive to and capable of solving societal problems that had gone unresolved,
these young scholars believed public administration should be value oriented and not efficiency
oriented. This brought about the trend of “New Public Administration”, in which they lay more
emphasis on values and ethics.
[Link] Government
Modern public administration shows a tradition of deliberate efforts to
increase efficiency and effectiveness of operations. David E. Osborne and Ted
Gaebler in their book “Reinventing Government: How the Entrepreneurship Spirit
Transformed in Public Sector” (1993) argue for a paradigm shift in the basic model
of governance used in America. The paradigm is premised on the thesis that the
kind of government that developed during the industrial era no longer works in
present times. The “post-industrial, knowledge-base, global economy” creates new
problems and opportunities which only a different kind of government can respond
in a better way.
In public administration, we are interested on how public organizations or
the government bureaucracy work and how to further improve them. Thus, it is
important to understand, analyze and explain how these public organizations
functions and, when necessary, to prescribe appropriate interventions to improve
performance. Organization or Administrative theory is generally considered
the conceptual or theoretical foundation of public administration study.
 Management/Bureaucratic School
Classical administration theory centers around the division of labor. This theoretical approach defines
“modernity” as the increasing specialization of labor. This means that a central bureaucracy must exist that
keeps these functions coordinated and connected through an impersonal chain of command. Therefore, the
emphasis on this approach is both on the decentralization of functions and specialties, and the centralization of
administrative command to keep functions working.
The following are the most significant theories of the Classical administration:
[Link] Management
Frederick W. Taylor (1912) is the principal proponent and regarded as the Father of Scientific
Management. Taylor was an industrial engineer with supervising work in a Philadelphia’s steel plant. During the
turn of the industrialization era, he observed that workers were not being managed by their employers. Instead,
they were left on their own devices. The workers decide on themselves by means of which they accomplished
their work and relied on the “rule of thumb” method that they developed over the years of experience in their
jobs.
He argued that there were scientific ways of doing one’s work and that these methods could be
identified and applied. His studies of actual work situations at the industrial shop and individual worker by
observing how an exceptional employee performed a particular task in search of “the one best way” that could
achieve efficiency and waste of resources could be minimized.
Scientific Management –
sought to increase the output by discovering the fastest, most efficient and least
fatiguing production method that could minimize the use of resources. Taylor’s
comprehensive statement of scientific management principles was focused on the following:
[Link] traditional rule-of-thumb method of work accomplishment with
systematic, more scientific methods of measuring and managing individual work
elements.
[Link] scientifically the selection and sequential development of workers to ensure
optimal placement of workers into work roles.
[Link] the cooperation of workers to ensure full application of scientific principles.
[Link] logical division within work roles and responsibilities between workers
and management.
Influence of Scientific Management on Public Administration:
According to Nigro, its contribution is the wide acceptance of efficiency as a primary
objective of administration
The values and methods its espoused were also compatible with the government
reforms being sought during that time, such as the establishment of merit system,
centralization of administrative/executive authority and accountability and removal of
partisan from the administration.
[Link] Management
Henry Fayol (1916), Father of Modern Management is a French mining engineer and
industrial executive who believed that administration was a skill that could be learned and
mastered once its underlying principles were understood and developed into a general theory of
administration. While scientific management focused on the lower level of organization,
Administrative Management emphasized the functions of management and the structuring of
organization.
Fayol identified 14 principles of administration that are most frequently applied that
were not rigid nor to be applied unconditionally for nothing in administration is so adorable and
inflexible (Stoner 1987).
13 Principles of Administration
[Link] of Labor - work is distributed among different employees; greater efficiency
is achieved if people became more specialized in their jobs. In practice, employees are
specialized in different areas and they have different skills; different levels of expertise can be
distinguished within the knowledge areas to increase productivity.
[Link] - employees should respect the policies and rules of the organization. Good
leadership at all levels of the organization, fair agreement and judicious application of penalty
for violation contribute to the discipline.
[Link] of Command - an employee should receive instructions only from one person or from his or
her superior to prevent conflict and confusion. The management principle “unity of command”
means that an individual employee should receive orders from one manager and that the employee is
answerable to that manager.
[Link] of Direction - organizational functions that have the same objective should be directed by
only one superior. All employees deliver the same activities that can be linked to the same objectives.
All activities must be carried out by one group that forms a team. These activities must be described
in a plan of action.
[Link] of Individual Interest to General Interest - the good or the interest of the
organization should prevail over individual interest, employee interest should not supersede the
interest of the organization. This applies to all levels of the entire organization, including the
managers.
[Link] of Employee - payment for work done should be fair for both employees and
employers. Motivation and productivity are close to one another as far as the smooth running of an
organization is concerned. This argues that the remuneration should be sufficient to keep employees
motivated and productive.
[Link] - management should have the final or ultimate say in the organization but it
should also be able to decentralize adequate amount of decision-making powers or authority to its
subordinates to enable them to perform their functions well.
[Link] Chain or Hierarchy - organization is structured along a line of authority that starts
from the top then down to the lowest level of the organization. The top most part wields the
ultimate power and responsibilities in the organization, hierarchy is usually depicted by the
organizational charts.
[Link] - people and materials should be present in the right places and at the right time (and
perhaps in the right amount); people should be matched to the right jobs
[Link] - superiors should be friendly and fair to their subordinates. The management
principle of equity often occurs in the core values of an organization.
[Link] of Tenure of Personnel - security of tenure among the staff provides continuity
and efficiency in operations; high employee turnover rate disrupts work and consequently
adversely affects the effective functioning of the organization.
[Link] - subordinates should be given a certain amount of freedom to devise plans and
carry them out even when plans do not turn out well. Fayol argued that employees should be
allowed to express new ideas. This encourages interest and involvement and creates added value
for the company.
[Link] de Corps - team or group spirit promote organization unity. Thus, it needs to be
encouraged. Managers are responsible for the development of morale in the workplace,
individually and in the area of communication.
POSDCORB
Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick (1937) elaborated Fayol’s management ideas through their paper
“Notes on theory of Organization (1937). Gulick and Urwick realized that governments were gaining an increased
role in the public sphere. Thus, they conceptualized the demarcation of the various important tasks of supervisors,
managers, and directors
POSDCRB stands for the following seven (7) administrative functions:
Planning - involves identifying the activities to be carried out and the means to implement them with the
purpose of accomplishing the goals of the organization. It is the task of the manager not only to decide what to do
but also to plan in the agenda. Planning has to do with foresight. This includes short-term, medium term and long-
term planning
Organizing - means setting up the formal structure of authority which becomes the basis for subdividing
the work. Managers not only have the task of assigning activities, but also have the task of allocating these tasks t
-o their respective departments and employees. To achieve an end result, the managers needs the necessary
resources and all sort things to achieve the end result
Staffing - refers to the whole personnel function from recruitment to training of staff to maintain
favorable work environment. The entire recruitment, selection and training fall under this staff policy and ensures
that the right type of employees is in the right place
• Directing - is a continues process of leading the organization by making decisions and
executing them through policies and procedures. Direction lies in the hands of the manager;
he/she is the person with final responsibility and is held accountable for this.
• Coordinating - involves interrelating and meshing the various parts or elements of the work
process. A good manager has a so-called “helicopter view” or an overview of what is
happening and what is still needs to be done. From this perspective, manager is able to
coordinate tasks- and manage the employees.
• Reporting - refers to the process and techniques of keeping superiors informed and updated
on the progress of work. Reporting provides insight into the progress and agreements
recorded.
• Budgeting - refers to the task of fiscal planning, accounting and control. The manager is
responsible for the management, expenditure and control of the department’s budget and also
has to keep an eye on tax details.
• According to Gulick and Urwick, the design of an organization is very important. A poorly-
organized structure leads to dysfunctional departments and this is why different activities
must be grouped together in the right way, so that departments can be created, each with their
own specialization. A clarified responsibilities and hierarchal layers are also important to
avoid overlapping of functions.
[Link] Model
Max Weber known as the Father of Bureaucracy is a German sociologist and
author of “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism” in the 1950s. He
systematically studied various forms of social organizations in western and in eastern
societies. Weber believed that bureaucracy was the most efficient way to setup an
organization and administration. In bureaucratic organization, everyone was treated
equally and the division of labor is clearly described for each employee.
Bureaucracy is an organizational structure that is characterized by many rules,
standardized process, procedures and requirements, meticulous division of labor and
responsibility. Weber identified characteristics or rules of a bureaucracy as follows:
[Link] -each level controls the levels below and is controlled by the above
level. Authority and responsibilities are clearly defined for each position. The hierarchy
of authority is a system in which different positions are related in order of precedence
and in which the highest rank on the ladder has the greatest power. The bottom layers of
bureaucratic organizational structures are always subject to supervision and control of
higher layers. This hierarchy reflects lines of bureaucratic communication and the
degree of delegation and layers of power and responsibilities are divided
[Link] of Labor - tasks are clearly defined and employees became skilled by specializing in doing
one thing. There is a clear definition of authority and responsibility. Tasks are divided into simple, routine
categories on the basis of competencies ad functional specializations. Each department has specific
powers. As a result, there is a delineation of task and managers can approach their employees more easily
when they do not stick to their tasks.
[Link] Selection - employee selection and promotion are based on experience, competence and
technical qualification demonstrated by examinations, education or training. All employees are selected
on the basis of technical skills and competencies which have been acquired through training, education
and experience.
[Link] Orientation - management is separate from ownership, and managers are career employees,
protection from arbitrary dismissal is guaranteed. This helps in the deployment of the right people in the
right positions and thereby optimally utilizing human capital.
[Link] Rules and Regulations- rules and regulations are documented to ensure reliable and
predictable behavior. Managers must depend on formal organizational rules in employee relations. The
rules and requirements are stable and always formalized in so-called official reports.
[Link]-rules are applied uniformly to everyone. Here is no preferential treatment or favoritism.
Interpersonal relationships are solely characterized by a system of public law and rules and requirements.
Official views are free from any personal involvement, emotions and feelings. Decisions are made solely
on the basis of rational factors, rather than personal factors
 Neo classical/Human Relations School
The theory is commonly referred to as human relations school. It
was an attempt at incorporating the behavioral science into management
in order to solve the problem of just focusing on production, structure
and technology. Neoclassical theory concentrated on the shift from
mechanical view of organization to be a more humanistic perspective.
The following are the theories of the Neo-classical era:
[Link] Administration
Mary Parker Follet is a contemporary management theorist, to her,
organization was a social system; psychological and sociological aspects were given
prominence in her writing. She advised managers to use conflict in a constructive
manner by suggesting the following ways:
[Link] to resolve conflict – only one party wins which is the
stronger one. The weaker party remains disgruntled and this will lead to very ugly
consequences later on. Therefore, this must be avoided
[Link] - where no party benefits but settle mutually for the time
being. But this sort of resolution is only a short term one and the conflict keeps
building up internally and it might become out of hand to even try to settle it
[Link] to resolve conflict- considered as the best technique. Under
this method, there is a feeling of a win-win equation and both conflicting groups see
their issues addressed, and a long-term solution arrived at.
[Link] Effect
Elton Mayo is considered the founder of the Human Relations Theory.
Together with his associates, they investigated the relationship of different work
with employee’s productivity. The theory focusses on human beings, their
psychological motivations and informal group behavior and looked at management
as not being secluded but a web of interpersonal relations.
The theory was a result from the conduct of study at the Western Electric
Company in the late 1920s. Mayo started the study due to growing unrest on the
mechanization of work brought by scientific management
The first experiment of Mayo and his team was called to analyze the issue of
a textile mill in Philadelphia with high turnover of labor even though everything
was being provided to them. Mayo introduced incentives but did not solve the
problem which means, the problem was not economics. He then focused on the rest
period, and found out that when they were given adequate rest, the workers felt
motivated and subsequently, labor turnover came down and production increases.
 The second experiment was conducted at the Western Electric Company in Hawthorne,
USA. He divided the people equally into two groups, one was to be the test group (experiment
testing group) and the other control group (where normal way of working was carried on).
This was to test the relationship between level of illumination and its effect to production. The
test group was changed periodically and the control group remained constant, as time passed
on, it was found that irrespective of the illumination, both groups increased their level of
production. The researchers were confused and so abandoned the idea and tried other
methods. But both groups produce more and more, when they withdrew the experiment, the
production lowered again but gradually increased after resumption of the experiment.
While on the third experiment, the 3rd experiment promotes a relaxed atmosphere in
the test group with their treatment in the working environment and superiors. As a result,
production increased as workers felt they were being cared for instead of being treated as
machines and their efforts was a big help in the industry. In the fourth experiment, he created
three (3) experiment groups, where wages were given as incentives if the group achieved its
target. Mayo found out that the group worked together but under performed and remained at
the same level always and followed a code of conduct among themselves
Mayo concluded the following:

a. Authority should be based on social skills rather than expertise to

secure coordination.

b. One should not neglect the human aspect of organization while

emphasizing the technical and economic aspect of the same

c. Social and human life were equally important in an organization and

these experiments brought out a new style of managerial skills where
apart from the technical skills, the management should handle human
situation, motivate, read and communicate regularly with workers
MODERN ORGANIZATION THEORY
This theory tries to explain and understand organizational phenomena in a more holistic
method integrating the classical approach with the social-psychological perspective of human
relations.

[Link]-Making Theory
Herbert Simon is regarded as the first Behaviorist. Simon argued that complete rationality
in administrative decision-making as maintained by the classical model was not possible. Complete
agreement on goals, access to all needed information and complete capacity to analyze them, full
knowledge of courses of action and their consequences are assumed to be present in the classical
model of rational decision-making are not descriptive of the real work.
He states that there can never be a “one best course of action or decision” as stated by the
classical theorist. As in reality, an administrator can never have all the complete information and
knowledge to do so and there will always be a better course of action which he is not aware of, and
so he takes a decision based on principles of bounded rationality or limitations of human capacity in
solving complex problems. Thus, the decisions taken by an administrative man is “satisfying and
sufficient rather than maximizing for the situation and “best choice” as per his/her knowledge.
Simon opined that every decision comes with 2 components associated with it:
[Link] Component- refers to such preferences which decisions maker maybe seen
pursing as an ethical statement, and which can be evaluated as true or false; and
[Link] Component - refers to such verifiable premises where positions can be
tested to determine that they are true or false. Science as per Simon is concerned
with facts and not values.
Two (2) types of Decision Making:
[Link] Decisions – Decisions having repetitive components and where
pre-established examples are present
[Link]-programmed Decisions – non repetitive in nature and directed towards
solving problems in new environments and new variables
In general, people in organization make decisions that enable them to
achieve their goal as well as those of the organization. Within the organizational
context and terms, individuals can make rational decisions.
[Link] of Motivation
Organization theory suggest in their recommendation that social and psychological concept like human
needs and motivation should be taken into consideration in the overall performance of the organization
Theory X and Theory Y
Douglas McGregor has emphasized on humanistic perspective and the involvement and participation in the
organizational functioning in an organization through his book “Human side of Enterprise” where he explained
the types of management style existing in organization with the concepts of Theory X and Theory Y.
Theory X of Managers -its emphasis is on structure, rules and procedures. Managers following this approach
feel that:
[Link] have a natural dislike for work;
[Link] do not like taking responsibility;
[Link] do not like challenging task;
[Link] work better in an environment of standardized rules and procedures;
[Link] lack creativity and innovation;
[Link] like to be directed/ordered and perform better when specific orders are directed at them; and
[Link] the motivation of workers carrot and stick arrangement can be used
Theory Y of Managers emphasis on human aspects more successful approach in
organizing groups for producing and efficiency as members experience high job
satisfaction and for this reason performance committed. Managers following this
approach feel the following:
[Link] show interest towards work when they have sufficient work assigned
[Link] have responsibility when they are provided with opportunity for
recognition
[Link] take up challenging task when superiors show trust in them
[Link] work better when they are allowed necessary discretion with regards
to selection of procedure and methods while performing a task
[Link] can be creative and innovative where they are provided sufficient
space for the same
[Link] perform better when their “self” is allowed to operate
[Link] are seen to be motivated when they are provided with opportunities
for advancement, learning and recognition
People on theory Y on the other hand assume that work is as natural as
play or rest and that people do not inherently dislike work, employees
have initiative and motivation to achieve the goals of the organization

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow, a renowned researcher and psychologist, proposed
a “hierarchy of needs” that demonstrates the human needs in the shape
of a pyramid. The base of the motivational order begins with the
fundamentals of life. Higher needs don’t seem as urgent and aren’t
persuaded when lower needs are not met. It is portrayed with the largest
and most fundamental levels of needs at the bottom, and the need for
self-actualization at the top.
[Link] needs- These are the basic needs of air, water, food, clothing and
shelter. In other words, physiological needs are the needs for basic amenities of
life.
[Link] needs- Safety needs include physical, environmental and emotional
safety and protection. For instance- Job security, financial security, protection
from animals, family security, health security, etc.
[Link] needs- Social needs include the need for love, affection, care,
belongingness, and friendship.
[Link] needs- Esteem needs are of two types: internal esteem needs (self-
respect, confidence, competence, achievement and freedom) and external esteem
needs (recognition, power, status, attention and admiration).
[Link]-actualization need- This include the urge to become what you are capable
of becoming / what you have the potential to become. It includes the need for
growth and self-contentment. It also includes desire for gaining more knowledge,
social- service, creativity and being aesthetic. The self- actualization needs are
never fully satiable. As an individual grows psychologically, opportunities keep
cropping up to continue growing.
 Theory of Motivation, more commonly known as the hierarchy of
needs, a humanistic model of assessing behavior. Maslow stated that
individuals have ranging needs, from high to low, that need to be fulfilled.
Only upon satisfying the most basic essential needs can a person elevate
their pursuit to a lesser, more sophisticated need. Public administrators, in
the exercise of their profession, must navigate these same needs within the
construct of their organization in a variety of ways -- from an individual
perspective, a profession perspective of ensuring the fulfillment of
organizational goals, and assessing staff needs, political influences, and
constituent views.
The first tier, physiological needs, is what one must accomplish to
ensure basic survival. Here, in applying it to our profession, a public
administrator must keep his or her organization functioning, ensuring that
it has the appropriate staff and financial resources to maintain its
operation. Without these basic needs, the organization cannot function.
 The second tier, safety, is the assurance that an organization exists in an environment
conducive to productivity. A public administrator must work to guarantee an organization's
employees that they are secure in their positions. This need is threatened in a time of austerity
or looming cuts, which stifles productivity.
The third tier, social needs, describes the ability of a public administrator to promote
the creativity and ingenuity of employees to best help an organization succeed and meet its
goals and obligations. It is important for a public administrator to strike a balance between
creative freedom and structure in an effort to produce an environment that promotes unit
cohesion.
The fourth tier, esteem, is an individual's opinion of oneself and how he or she is
perceived by peers. In an organization, this could range from personality to work ethic, and as
a whole, reflects the organization itself. Professionals long for respect from their colleagues
and seek to take pride in their work. In general, this is often achieved by success, hard work,
and going beyond the traditional constructs of a position.
The fifth and final tier, actualization, is the opportunity for public administrators and
employees to reflect on their work, accomplishments, and the organization. Performance
evaluations and staff meetings are the most pervasive examples of actualization within an
organization.
Development Administration (DA) and New Public Administration (NPA)
[Link] Administration (DA)
Development is a widely participatory process of directed social change in a
society, intended to bring about social and material development for the majority of the
people through their gaining greater control over their environment. The precise nature
of particular development problems varies from one country to another, depending on
their unique economic, social, political and cultural characteristics.
During the 1950s and 1960s, a general optimism about development was
widespread among both academic scholars and government officials while the main
viewpoint in the 1980s is Pluralism, a willingness to recognize many different
approaches to development.
[Link] Approaches - soon after World War II, many Third World countries in
Asia, Africa and Latin America gained their independence from Western colonial rule.
These newly-independent Third World nations noted the pathway that had been
followed by the Western Industrialized countries to achieve socio-economic progress.
Walt Rostow (1960) identified five (5) stages in the process of a nation’s economic
development:
[Link] society, characterized by low level of technology, a rigid
social structure, fatalistic attitudes, and a low per capita income;
[Link] for take-off, evolve as a traditional society is exposed to
modern scientific knowledge and technology, and traditions begin to break
down
[Link]-off, wherein sustained economic growth gets underway, and the
society discards its traditional values.
[Link] to maturity, in which a society undergoes rapid economic growth
and becomes integrated into the larger international economic system; and
[Link] mass consumption, characterized by a high standard of living for
a majority of the society.,
Rostow emphasized Gross National Product (GNP) as a measure of a
country’s progress and development
[Link] Approaches is rooted in Max Weber’s analysis of emergence of the Protestant Ethic and the
subsequent rise of modern capitalism in the Western World. Weber argued that capitalism flourished in Europe
because the Protestant information movement ended the long-established authority of the church, encouraging
rational scientific inquiry, modern European society displayed a spirit of capitalism, whose roots originated in
ascetic Protestantism.
[Link] Approaches defined as the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain
channels over time among the members of a social system.
Diffusion is a process by which a third world country adopts capita, technology and social structure
from western industrial countries. He argues that the third world countries will develop to the following
extent:
Western industrialized countries provide capital (through loans and grants) to invest in development
programs;
They adopt modern methods of agricultural and industrial production; and
They adopt those values, attitudes and behavior patterns that are exhibited by Western
industrialized nations
In sum, early development theorist viewed development as a process by which a “traditional” third
world society could be transferred into “modern” western society. stressed economic growth (measured as the
annual rate of growth in a nation’s Gross National Product (GNP)
[Link] approaches in the 1970s and 1980s, the development problem has been
conceptualized in various ways. Rather than looking at GNP as a measure of development, meeting
the basic human needs, equitable distribution of socio-economic benefits, and the people
empowerment are being increasingly looked upon as development goals. Development scholars no
longer treat the Third World countries as a homogenous group but increasingly recognize the context
of cultural, context-based approaches to development.
Key elements in contemporary development approaches, reflected in thinking of Rogers,
Korten and Klaus, Bjur Bryant and White including the following:
[Link] equality in distribution of development benefits;
[Link] participation, knowledge-sharing and empowerment to facilitate self-development
efforts by individuals, groups and communities;
[Link]-reliance and independence in development, emphasizing the potential of local
resources;
[Link] growth of population; and
[Link] of “appropriate” technology with “big” modern technologies in order to
facilitate development
 Development administration grew as an academic discipline when western
industrialized nations began to aid Third World development, using government and public-
sponsored institutions as agents of social change. Today, development administration is less
bound to western approaches to development. The focus is on indigenous development,
which is sustainable, and which meets the basic needs of the people.
From “Blue-Print” Approach to Learning-Process Approach in contrast, a
“learning-process” approach is a relatively open-ended strategy to planned social change.
This approach involves cybernetic process by which development administrations can adapt
themselves to changing environments and incorporate mid-course corrections, based on
existing local conditions. The “blue-print” approach emphasizes advanced planning for the
people. The learning-process approach emphasizes planning with the people and doing so,
during the process of administering a development program.
From Production-Centered Approach to a People-Centered
Approach, another trend in contemporary development
administration theorizing is a shift from a Production-Centered
approach to a People-Centered approach to development.
People-Centered approach to development, the needs of the
people take precedence over the needs of the production system. This
approach views individuals not as subject but as actor who defines the
goals, controls the resources and directs the process affecting his/her
life.
 Key elements in contemporary development approaches, reflected in thinking of
Rogers, Korten and Klaus, Bjur Bryant and White including the following:
[Link] equality in distribution of development benefits;
[Link] participation, knowledge-sharing and empowerment to facilitate self-
development efforts by individuals, groups and communities;
[Link]-reliance and independence in development, emphasizing the potential of
local resources;
[Link] growth of population; and
[Link] of “appropriate” technology with “big” modern technologies in order to
facilitate development
Development administration grew as an academic discipline when western
industrialized nations began to aid Third World development, using government and public-
sponsored institutions as agents of social change. Today, development administration is less
bound to western approaches to development. The focus is on indigenous development,
which is sustainable, and which meets the basic needs of the people
 From “Blue-Print” Approach to Learning-Process Approach in
contrast, a “learning-process” approach is a relatively open-ended strategy to
planned social change. This approach involves cybernetic process by which
development administrations can adapt themselves to changing environments and
incorporate mid-course corrections, based on existing local conditions. The “blue-
print” approach emphasizes advanced planning for the people. The learning-process
approach emphasizes planning with the people and doing so, during the process of
administering a development program.
From Production-Centered Approach to a People-Centered Approach,
another trend in contemporary development administration theorizing is a shift from
a Production-Centered approach to a People-Centered approach to development.
People-Centered approach to development, the needs of the people take
precedence over the needs of the production system. This approach views
individuals not as subject but as actor who defines the goals, controls the resources
and directs the process affecting his/her life.
[Link] Public Administration (NPA)

New Public Administration came at the height of the political

upheaval and turbulence of the late 1960s and early 1970s, in which Western
societies especially the USA witnessed many social problems: disturbance,
instability, confusion — and the like. The conventional public administration
with its pillars—economy and efficiency—was unable to give suitable
response to the escalating turmoil and the complications that arose from the
political turbulence.

Eventually, a movement was developed within the discipline in search

of a new public administration—one sensitive to and capable of solving
societal problems that had gone unresolved. These young scholars believed
public administration should be value oriented and not efficiency oriented.
This brought about the trend of “New Public Administration”, in which they
lay more emphasis on values and ethics.
Goals of New Public Administration:

Relevance, the advocates of the new public administration movement

pointed out that the discipline had little to say about contemporary
problems and emerging issues of post-industrial society and as a result,
was becoming irrelevant. They insist that it should deal with such
contemporary problems as urbanism, slums, environmental pollution,
violence, riots, labor unions, strikes and problems of technology.

Values, the champions of the new movement advocate openness about

the values being served through administrative action. The new public
administrator should be less generic and more public, less descriptive
and more prescriptive, less institution-oriented and more client-impact
oriented, less neutral and more normative
 Social Equity, defined as “the fair, just and equitable management
of all institutions serving the public directly or by contract; and the fair
and equitable distribution of public services, and implementation of
public policy; and the commitment to promote fairness, justice and
equity in the formation of public policy.”

Change, become active agents of social change to serve the cause

of social equity to actively work for social change. The client-oriented,
normative and socially conscious public administration, as advocated by
the new movement, is of direct relevance to the Third World countries
where public administration is in dire need of basic, qualitative
transformation
Client Focus, the new public administration advocates a ‘client-focused administration.
The advocates emphasize the need for administrators to be sufficiently interested in
meeting human needs of those who receive government services or goods. In addition,
they stress administrators should be active in sensing public needs and responding to
them. The clients of administration should also be given voice in deciding how and when
and what is to be provided. The new public administration, therefore, requires positive,
proactive and responsive administrators rather than authoritarian and ivory tower
bureaucrats.
The social, political, economic and technological environment is changing rapidly.
The administrative organization and procedures should be responsive to the changes that
are taking place in the socio-economic, political and technological environments. In
other words, there must be greater organizational and operational flexibility in the
administrative system to meet changes in the environment.
New Public Administration was applied in counties at a time the latter were in the
process of nation building and grappling with social and economic problems. Thus,
development administration is “management of innovation” and “carrier of innovating
values” because it sought to help counties that were undergoing rapid social
transformation from rural and agricultural towards modern and industrial societies.
Reinventing Government

Reinventing Government suggests that governments must act in

entrepreneurial ways. According to the authors, an entrepreneurial
government utilizes its resources in new ways to maximize productivity
and effectiveness. They adapted to the government context the
definition of entrepreneur made by the French economist, J.B Say.
“entrepreneur shifts economic resources out of an era of lower and into
an area of high productivity and greater yield

A common theme that runs across these principles is that

entrepreneurial government is constantly seeking new and better ways
to accomplish its mission and possess the following characteristics:
Catalytic Government: government sees to it that public problems are solved not
necessarily by directly engaging in the provision or production of the needed goods
and services (rowing) but by seeking solutions and mobilizing resources outside the
public sector (steering). A steering government has more time to concentrate on policy
matters and actively direct and shape the future of the country.
Community-Owned Government: an entrepreneurial government involves the
community in governance. Rather than foster dependency on public institutions and
civil servants that deliver services and solve social problems, the government
encourages the community-citizen, voluntary organizations, church, neighborhood
associations – to help solve them.
Competitive Government: the idea here is that government should consider more
effective and efficient ways of providing public service. This means looking at service
providers who can do the job better than the regular government offices or departments
that have traditionally been providing or monopolizing them.
Mission-Driven Government: most public institutions are driven not by their mission
but their rules, procedures, and budget. There are rules to be followed every step of the
way which detract officials from focusing on and pursuing the fundamental purpose of
their organization.
Results-Oriented Government: for public organizations which are able to receive their
budget year in and year out without so much accounting for what they have accomplished,
there is little incentives for them to improve their performance.
Customer-Driven Government: in the traditional government, the existence of public
institutions depends on which agencies they want to please because they decide the budget
and interest groups like their intermediate or secondary clients. The intended beneficiaries of
their programs and services are usually taken for granted and regarded as a mere recipient
Enterprise Government: the public budget system operate from the standpoint of spending
and government officials oblige by spending their agency’s budget. The question often asked
to approach activities or solve a problem is “how much will they cost”
Anticipatory Government: the government spends enormous amount to deal with the
symptoms or consequence of social problems (example: cleaning of toxic waste produced by
industries). More often, treating or curing the problems is much more expensive than
preventing them. The costs can be minimized and the magnitude of social problems lessened
if governments act immediately to prevent them from happening
Decentralized Government: the entrepreneurial government is a participatory
government because it decentralized decision-making powers to the different
levels in the organizations, to the “periphery” and “down below” – the
frontline workers customers, communities and non-government organizations.
By decentralizing authority, public institutions can respond more quickly to the
changing circumstances and needs of the public they serve

Market-Oriented Government: government cannot provide for all the public

services need by the people and communities. Neither raising taxes nor greater
spending will satisfactorily solve this. Politically and financially speaking,
government can, however, resort to market mechanisms to provide the needed
services, or what the authors say, leveraging change through the market
ASSESSMENT: 2.5

1. On your own understanding, compare and contrast the theories of

Public Administration.
[Link] the Origin of Red Tape in the Bureaucracy.
[Link] from the discussed characteristics, what additional features can
be added to become an effective public administrator?
Thank Y u!