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The Endocrine System

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 Located throughout the body.
• with the brain
– the hypothalamus
– the pituitary,
– the pineal glands
• in the neck
– the thyroid
– parathyroid glands
• in the thorax
– the thymus

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• With in the abdominal region.
– Adrenal gland
– pancreas is mixed gland
– the stomach,
– the kidneys,
– the mucosal cells of the duodenum,
• within the pelvic cavity
– gonads (ovaries) -
• in the scrotum
– testes
• the placenta

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• the Hypothalamus
– small region of the brain, inferior to the thalamus
– link between the nervous and endocrine systems.
– Master of pituitary gland
– secretes several hormones that control other endocrine
glands such as:
• Thyrotropin-releasing hormone(TRH)
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
• Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
• Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
– All of these are released in to the anterior lobe of the
pituitary.
– Two other hypothalamic hormones
• vasopressin and
• oxytocin
– travel in the neurons themselves to the posterior lobe of
the pituitary. 7
Hypothalamic Regulatory Hormone Anterior Pituitary Hormone
Growth hormone–releasing Growth hormone (GH)
hormone (GHRH)
Growth hormone–inhibiting Growth hormone (reduced
hormone (GHIH) or somatostatin production)
Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH) Prolactin (luteotropic hormone, LTH)
Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH), Prolactin (luteotropic hormone, LTH)
dopamine (reduced production)
Corticotropin-releasing hormone Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
(CRH)
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
(TRH)
Luteinizing hormone–releasing Luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-
hormone (LHRH), follicle- stimulating hormone (FSH)
stimulating releasing hormone
(FRH)

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• Pituitary gland (cerebral hypophysis)
– is a pea-shaped structure
– is located on the inferior aspect of the brain in
the region of the diencephalons
– is attached to the brain by a stalk like
structure called the pituitary stalk
– lies in the hypophyseal fossa of the sella
turcica of the sphenoid bone.
Infundibulum:
– is the portion of the pituitary stalk
– connects the hypothalamus to the posterior
lobe of the pituitary gland. 9
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• The pituitary gland is structurally and
functionally divided into:
– anterior lobe- adenohypophysis
– posterior lobe- neurohypophysis.
The adenohypophysis
• accounts for about 75 %
• is composed of epithelial tissue.
• develops from ectoderm called the hypophyseal
pouch
• secretes hormones that regulate a wide range
of bodily activities.
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• hormones are called trophic hormones (trophic
= ‘food’) because they make their target glands
hypertrophy.
– Stimulated: releasing hormones
– Suppressed: inhibiting hormones from the
hypothalamus.
• The neurohypophysis
– is the neural part of the pituitary gland.
– does not synthesize hormones,
– It store and release two hormones.
• It consists of:
– Pituicytes are like astrocytes and axon terminals of
hypothalamic neurosecretory cells. 13
• Neurosecretory cells:
– their cell bodies are in the paraventricular (oxytocin)
and supraoptic nuclei (ADH) of the hypothalamus.
– their axons form the hypothalamohypophyseal
tract
• Produce two hormones:
– oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Diabetes Insipidus
• dysfunction of the posterior pituitary
• due to defects in ADH receptors or an inability to
secrete ADH.

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• Symptom:
– excretion of large volumes of urine (dehydration
and thirst).
– Bedwetting
• Neurogenic diabetes insipidus:
– results from hyposecretion of ADH
– by a brain tumor, head trauma, or brain surgery.
• Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus,
– the kidneys do not respond to ADH.

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 Pineal gland
• is a small endocrine gland attached to the roof of the
third ventricle
• consists of masses of neuroglia and secretory cells
(pinealocytes)
• secrete melatonin (contributes to the setting of the
body’s biological clock).
• Thyroid
– below the larynx.
– consists of two lobes
– located on either lateral side of the trachea
– connected anteriorly by a broad isthmus.
– is the largest of the endocrine glands
– has a rich blood supply, receive 80–120mL/minute
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• Thyroid follicles:
– Microscopic spherical sacs.
– make up most of the thyroid gland.
– consists primarily follicular cells
• produce two hormones:
– thyroxine (tetraiodothyronine or T4)
• , because it contains four atoms of iodine,
– Triiodothyronine (T3
• Contains three atoms of iodine.

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• thyroid hormones regulate
1. Oxygen use and basal metabolic rate,
2. cellular metabolism,
3. Growth and development of cells.
• parafollicular cells (C-cells)
– may be embedded within a follicle or lie between
follicles.
– produce the hormone calcitonin (regulate calcium
homeostasis.

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• Parathyroid glands
• embedded in the posterior surface of the lateral lobes
of the thyroid gland.
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four parathyroid glands:
– a superiors and
– an inferiors pair.
• It’s vasculature is similar to that of the thyroid gland.
• Contain epithelial cells
1. chief (principal) cells
– numerous cells
– produce parathyroid hormone (PTH),
2. Oxyphil cells:
– their function is unknown
– helps to identify the parathyroid gland histologically due to its
unique staining characteristics.

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• Pancreas
– is both an endocrine and an exocrine gland.
– located posterior and slightly inferior to the
stomach
• Acini:
– are clusters exocrine cells
– produce digestive enzymes
• Pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)
– Scattered among the exocrine acini
– are 1–2 million tiny clusters of endocrine
– most common in the body and tail of the
pancreas 24
 – Each contains four types of hormone-secreting
cells:
1. Alpha cells: glucagon
2. Beta cells: insulin
3. Delta cells: somatostatin
4. F cells: pancreatic polypeptide.

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• Adrenal glands (suprarenal glands)
– lies superior to each kidney in the retroperitoneal
space,
– flattened pyramidal shape.
– each consisting of
• an outer cortex
• inner medulla
• adrenal cortex:
– large, peripherally located
– represent 80–90% of the gland by weight
– develops from mesoderm
– is divided into three concentric, histologically
recognizable regions:
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A. Adrenal cortex
– the zona glomerulosa,
• the outer layer,
• Produce aldosterone (mineralocorticoids)
– zona fasciculata
• Middle layer
• Produce the glucocorticoid hormones
– zona reticularis.
• innermost zone of the adrenal cortex,
• produces the sex hormones androgen and
estrogen.

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• B. Adrenal medulla
– is completely invested by the adrenal
cortex.
– a small, centrally located
– develops from ectoderm.
– produces norepinephrine and
epinephrine.

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• Gonads
–These are
• the testes and
• ovaries
– They are mixed glands in that they produce both
sex hormones and sex cell (gametes).

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•Testes
– Endocrine sex gland.
– two oval gonads suspended in the scrotum by the
spermatic cords
– The testes produce
• sperms (spermatozoa) and
• hormones, principally testosterone.

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• tunica albuginea: a tough outer surface.
• tunica vaginalis:
– covers surface of each testis
– except where the testis attaches to the epididymis.
– is a closed peritoneal sac surrounding the testis.
– has two layers
• the visceral layer
• The Parietal layer

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• A. The ovaries
– are paired oval bodies located in the pelvic cavity
– are primary sex organs,
– produce female sex hormones (estrogens and
progesterone
– color varies with age and reproductive stage:
• young girl – smooth, pinkish
• puberty - irregular, pinkish- gray surfaces (due to
ovulation)
• Also produce:
– Inhibin: inhibits secretion of follicle-stimulating
– relaxin (RLX): During pregnancy, increases the
flexibility of the pubic symphysis
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• Thymus
– secretes a hormone called thymosin,
– which is believed to stimulate the T-cells after they
leave the thymus.
• Placenta
– responsible for nutrient and waste exchange between the
fetus and the mother.
– is also an endocrine gland;
– secretes large amounts of estrogens and progesterone
– In addition human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG).

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