Introduction To Operating System.

Introduction
What Operating Systems Do?

Computer-System Organization
Computer-System Architecture Operating-System Structure Operating-System Operations

Process Management
Memory Management Storage Management Protection and Security Distributed Systems Special-Purpose Systems Computing Environments

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Objectives
To provide a grand tour of the major

operating systems components

To provide coverage of basic computer

system organization

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What is an Operating System?

A program that acts as an intermediary

between a user of a computer and the computer hardware.

Operating system goals:
Execute Make

user programs and make solving user problems easier. the computer system convenient to use.

Use the computer hardware in an efficient

manner.
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Computer System Structure

Computer system can be divided into four components

Hardware provides basic computing resources CPU, memory, I/O devices Operating system Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various applications and users

Application programs define the ways in which the system resources are used to solve the computing problems of the users Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems, video games Users People, machines, other computers
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Operating System Concepts

Four Components of a Computer System

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Operating System Definition

OS is a resource allocator
Manages
Decides

all resources

between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource use execution of programs to prevent errors.

OS is a control program
Controls

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Operating System Definition (Cont.)

No universally accepted definition Everything a vendor ships when you order

an operating system is good approximation

But

varies wildly

The one program running at all times on the

computer is the kernel. Everything else is either a system program (ships with the operating system) or an application program

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Computer Startup
bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or

reboot
Typically

stored in ROM or EEPROM, generally known as firmware

Initializates
Loads

all aspects of system

operating system kernel and starts execution

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Computer System Organization

Computer-system operation
One

or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus providing access to shared memory of CPUs and devices competing for memory cycles

Concurrent execution

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Computer System Organization

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Computer-System Operation
I/O devices and the CPU can execute

concurrently.
Each device controller is in charge of a particular

device type.
Each device controller has a local buffer.
CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from

local buffers
I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller. Device controller informs CPU that it has finished

its operation by causing an interrupt.

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Common Functions of Interrupts

Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine

generally, through the interrupt vector, which contains the addresses of all the service routines.
Interrupt architecture must save the address of the

interrupted instruction.
Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt

is being processed to prevent a lost interrupt.

A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by

an error or a user request.

An operating system is interrupt driven.

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Interrupt Handling
The operating system preserves the state of the

CPU by storing registers and the program counter.

Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
Polling. vectored

interrupt system.

Separate segments of code determine what action

should be taken for each type of interrupt.

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I/O Structure
After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O

completion.

Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt Wait loop (contention for memory access). At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no simultaneous I/O processing. After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting for I/O completion. System call request to the operating system to allow user to wait for I/O completion. Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device indicating its type, address, and state. Operating system indexes into I/O device table to determine device status and to modify table entry to include interrupt.
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Device-Status Table

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Direct Memory Access Structure

Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit

information at close to memory speeds.

Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer

storage directly to main memory without CPU intervention.

Only on interrupt is generated per block, rather than the

one interrupt per byte.

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Storage Structure
Main memory only large storage media that the

CPU can access directly.

Secondary storage extension of main memory that

provides large nonvolatile storage capacity.

Magnetic disks rigid metal or glass platters covered

with magnetic recording material.

Disk

surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into sectors.

The

disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device and the computer.
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Storage Hierarchy
Storage systems organized in hierarchy.
Speed Cost

Volatility

Caching copying information into faster storage

system; main memory can be viewed as a last cache for secondary storage.

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Storage-Device Hierarchy

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Caching
Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer

(in hardware, operating system, software)

Information in use copied from slower to faster storage

temporarily
Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if

information is there

If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast) If not, data copied to cache and used there Cache management important design problem Cache size and replacement policy

Cache smaller than storage being cached

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Performance of Various Levels of Storage

Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be

explicit or implicit

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Migration of Integer A from Disk to Register

Multitasking environments must be careful to use

most recent value, not matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy

Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their cache
Distributed environment situation even more complex

Several copies of a datum can exist

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Operating System Concepts

Operating System Structure

Multiprogramming needed for efficiency
Single

user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times

Multiprogramming
A

organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to execute
subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory job selected and run via job scheduling

One

When

it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job

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Operating System Concepts

Operating System Structure

Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which

CPU switches jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating interactive computing

Response time should be < 1 second Each user has at least one program executing in memory process If several jobs ready to run at the same time CPU scheduling If processes dont fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory
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Operating System Concepts

Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

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Operating-System Operations
Interrupt driven by hardware Software error or request creates exception or trap

Division by zero, request for operating system service

Other process problems include infinite loop, processes

modifying each other or the operating system Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system components

User mode and kernel mode Mode bit provided by hardware Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or kernel code Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in kernel mode
System

call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2005 Operating System Concepts 1.27 it to user

Transition from User to Kernel Mode

Timer to prevent infinite loop / process

hogging resources
Set

interrupt after specific period

system decrements counter counter zero generate an interrupt

Operating When Set

up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate program that exceeds allotted time

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Transition from User to Kernel Mode

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Process Management
A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the

system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.

Process needs resources to accomplish its task

CPU, memory, I/O, files

Initialization data

Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location

of next instruction to execute

Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until completion

Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating

system running concurrently on one or more CPUs

Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes / threads

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Operating System Concepts

Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with process management:
Creating and deleting both user and system processes Suspending and resuming processes

Providing mechanisms for process synchronization

Providing mechanisms for process communication Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

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Memory Management
All data in memory before and after processing

All instructions in memory in order to execute

Memory management determines what is in memory when

Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom

Memory management activities

Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into and out of memory
Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

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Storage Management
OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage

Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file

Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)

Varying

properties include access speed, capacity, data-transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)

File-System management

Files usually organized into directories Access control on most systems to determine who can access what OS activities include
Creating

and deleting files and directories to manipulate files and dirs files onto secondary storage
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Primitives Mapping

Backup
Operating System Concepts

files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media

Mass-Storage Management
Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or

data that must be kept for a long period of time.

Proper management is of central importance Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem and its

algorithms
OS activities

Free-space management Storage allocation Disk scheduling Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape Still must be managed

Some storage need not be fast

Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW (read-write)

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Operating System Concepts

I/O Subsystem
One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware

devices from the user

I/O subsystem responsible for
Memory

management of I/O including buffering (storing data temporarily while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts of data in faster storage for performance), spooling (the overlapping of output of one job with input of other jobs) device-driver interface for specific hardware devices
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General Drivers
Operating System Concepts

Protection and Security

Protection any mechanism for controlling access of processes or

users to resources defined by the OS

Security defense of the system against internal and external

attacks

Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity theft, theft of service

Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who

can do what

User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated number, one per user User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to determine access control

Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and controls managed, then also associated with each process, file
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Operating System Concepts

Computing Environments
Traditional computer

Office environment
PCs

connected to a network, terminals attached to mainframe or minicomputers providing batch and timesharing portals allowing networked and remote systems access to same resources

Now

Home networks
Used
Now

to be single system, then modems

firewalled, networked

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Computing Environments (Cont.)

Client-Server Computing

Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated by clients Compute-server provides an interface to client to request services (i.e. database) File-server provides interface for clients to store and retrieve files

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Peer-to-Peer Computing
Another model of distributed system P2P does not distinguish clients and servers

Instead all nodes are considered peers May each act as client, server or both Node must join P2P network
Registers

its service with central lookup service on network, or request for service and respond to requests for service via discovery protocol

Broadcast

Examples include Napster and Gnutella

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Web-Based Computing
PCs most prevalent devices More devices becoming networked to allow web access New category of devices to manage web traffic among

similar servers: load balancers

Use of operating systems like Windows 95, client-side,

have evolved into Linux and Windows XP, which can be clients and servers

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Thank You.