Evidence Based

Practices for Strategic

& Tactical Firefighting
Learning Outcomes
• To provide information and resources based on
recent research focusing on modern fire behavior,
building construction, and fireground strategy and
tactics
Evidence Based Practices for
Strategic & Tactical Firefighting
• Jones & Bartlett Learning
developed this publication
to inform the fire service
on the research coming
out of UL and NIST. Jones
& Bartlett Learning’s hope
is that it will help save
lives.
• Ideal for enhancing Fire
Fighter I & II, Fire Science
Degree, and Fire Officer
development programs.
 Introduction
• Major changes in our
understanding of basic fire
behavior
• Tactical options are increasing
based on better assessment tools
• Changes in building
construction materials and
techniques are occurring at a
rapid pace
• Changes in fuel types impact
safe fireground operations Courtesy of NIST.
• New terminology has emerged
to reflect these changes
Strategic and Tactical History
• Principal means of developing strategy and tactics
have been observation based.
• These proven methods are still valuable
• New research helps us further understand the
actual progression of fire and the impact of each
action taken.
• Research has been based on live fire experiments in
laboratory and acquired structure environments.
 National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST)
• The Group enables advances in
fire fighter safety, fireground
operations, and effectiveness of
the fire service; develops and
applies technology,
measurements, and standards,
and improves the understanding
of the behavior, prevention, and
control of fires to enhance fire
fighting operations and
equipment, fire suppression, fire Courtesy of NIST.
investigations, and disaster
response.
• http://www.nist.gov/fire/
technology.cfm
 NIST Experiments and Reports
http://www.nist.gov/fire/index.cfm
• D. Madrzykowski and R. L. Vettori. Simulation of the Dynamics of the Fire at 3146 Cherry
Road NE Washington D.C., May 30, 1999. NISTIR6510, National Institute of Standards and
Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland, April 2000.
http://www.nist.gov/customcf/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=908795
• D. Madrzykowski, G.P. Forney, and W. D. Walton. Simulation of the Dynamics of a Fire in a
Two-Story Duplex–Iowa, December 22, 1999. NISTIR 6854, National Institute of Standards
and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland, January 2002.
http://www.nist.gov/customcf/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=861122
• R. L. Vettori, D. Madrzykowski, and W. D. Walton. Simulation of the Dynamics of a Fire in a
One-Story Restaurant–Texas, February 14, 2000. NISTIR6923, National Institute of
Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland, October 2002.
http://www.nist.gov/customcf/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=861191
NIST Experiments and Reports
• N. Bryner, S. P. Fuss, B. W. Klein, and A. D. Putorti. Technical Study of the Sofa
Super Store Fire, South Carolina, June 18, 2007. NIST Special Publication 1118,
National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, March 2011.
http://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/SpecialPublications/NIST.SP.1118v1.pdf
• A.Barowy and D. Madrzykowski. Simulation of the Dynamics of a Wind-Driven Fire
in a Ranch-Style House–Texas. NIST Technical Note 1729, National Institute of
Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland, 2012.
http://www.nist.gov/customcf/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=909779
• C. G. Weinschenk, K. J. Overholt, and D. Madrzykowski. Simulation of an Attic Fire
in a Wood Frame Residential Structure–Chicago, IL. NIST Technical Note 1838,
National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland, 2014.
http://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/TechnicalNotes/NIST.TN.1838.pdf
• K. J. Overholt, C. G. Weinschenk, and D. Madrzykowski. Simulation of a Fire in a
Hillside Residential Structure–San Francisco, CA. NIST Technical Note 1856,
National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland, 2014.
http://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/TechnicalNotes/NIST.TN.1856.pdf
Underwriters Laboratories (UL)
• UL’s Firefighter Safety
Research Institute is
dedicated to increasing
fire fighter knowledge
to reduce injuries and
deaths in the fire
service and in the
communities they
serve.

Courtesy of UL.
UL Experiments and Reports
• Comparison of Modern and • Impact of Ventilation on Fire
Behavior in Legacy and
Legacy Home Furnishings Contemporary Residential
• Effectiveness of Fire Service Construction
Vertical Ventilation and • Improving Fire Safety by
Understanding the Fire Performance
Suppression Tactics of Engineered Floor Systems
• Fire fighter Exposure to • Structural Stability of Engineered
Smoke Particulates Lumber in Fire Conditions
• Study of Residential Attic Fire
• Fire fighter Safety and Mitigation Tactics and Exterior Fire
Photovoltaic Systems Spread Hazards
• Fire Service Positive Pressure
• Governors Island Ventilation During Fire Attack in
Experiments Single family Dwellings
New Firefighting Vocabulary and
Terminology
Vent Point Bi-Directional
Flow Path Ignition Flow Path*

Ventilation Fuel Vent-Enter-

Isolate-
Limited Fire Limited Fire Search

Transition Heat Release

al Attack Rate
Fire Behavior
• With improved understanding of fire behavior, the
importance of controlling ventilation is a key factor
to safe and effective operations.
• Safer and more efficient methods for conducting
search operations have emerged.
• Fire fighter safety and survival are improved
through quicker suppression techniques.
Flashovers
• Increased incidents of violent and rapid flashovers
are being encountered in residential fires.
• UL and NIST studies have been conducted to
provide knowledge and tools to better understand
this phenomenon.
• Testing has included full-scale burns in both
laboratory and acquired structures.
Fire Behavior Research Yields Better
Understanding
• Fire Dynamics
• Ventilation and flow paths; how fires spread
• Applying water; coordinating fire attack
• Rescue and safety considerations
• Basement fires
 Fire Growth Curve Comparison

Courtesy of NIST.
Fire Dynamics
• Legacy vs. modern
fueled and built
environments
• Building materials
changed
• Fuels have changed
Modern Construction Concerns
• Higher performing insulating materials and lighter
weight materials change the way fires burn.
• Solid dimensional lumber has been replaced with lower
mass materials and manufactured structural
components.
• Furniture constructed of materials derived from
petroleum products are found in every room of a
modern home.
• Heat Release Rate increases as fires burn hotter and
faster and the methods of heat transfer in a tightly
sealed house have resulted in rapid fire spread.
 Modern vs. Legacy Timelines

Reproduced from: Fire Technology 48(4): 865-891, “Analysis

of Changing Residential Fire Dynamics and Its Implications
on Firefighter Operational TimeFrames”, Kerber, S.,
Copyright © 2012, National Fire Protection Association
Flashover Comparison

Courtesy of UL.
Factors that Change the Way Fires
Burn in Modern Houses

Courtesy of UL.
Stages of Fire Development in a
Single Family Dwelling

Courtesy of UL. 21
Fuel and Construction Combinations
• Produce new fire dynamics
• Fires may grow rapidly and then enter a stage of
dormancy due to insufficient levels of oxygen for
the fuels involved
• This may occur before a fire has reached flashover
• Result is a ventilation-limited fire
• A fire that cannot grow into a fully developed or free
burning fire as the environment has become too fuel-
rich
Ventilation-Limited Fires
• These fires result in an environment that waits for the
introduction of fresh air that creates rapid and hostile
fire growth.
• Making entry through the front door in these instances
can introduce enough air into the fire area to produce
rapid fire growth and flashover.
• Firefighters need to be aware that any opening in the
structure constitutes ventilation.
• This has not been traditionally taught in many instances
• Repeated experiments have produced violent flashovers
shortly after the front door is opened.
Results of Tests with NIST, UL, and
FDNY
Ventilation and Fire Flow Paths
• Effective fire extinguishment takes place when you
understand how fires spread
• All firefighters know the basic principles of fire
spread
• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
• Fire triangle
• All smoke, particulates, and fire gases are fuel
Flow Path and Fire Spread
• Fire spread is largely a
pressure-driven event
• Fire spreads along a flow path
• Flow path is the lower
pressure space between an
inlet for fresh air (door or
window), the fire, and the
higher-pressure space
between the fire and the
outlet for hot gases and
smoke (open window or roof
vent)
Courtesy of NIST.
Bi-Directional Flow Path
• Fire creates a flow path of • Result is bi-directional
hot gases exiting through flow path
the top part of the door
while the bottom half will
allow introduction of cool
oxygen-rich air into the
fire
• This is created (for
example) when only the
front door is opened
during a fire
Single Direction Flow Paths
• Result when openings on • Flow paths can move
the structure are through a building,
positioned to produce pushing hot gases along it.
exclusive ports for the • If adequate oxygen mixes
entry of oxygen rich with the hot gases, the
airflow OR the release of entire flow path can
hot gases from the become a rapidly moving
structure. wall of flames.
• Directly impacted by • Firefighters cannot survive
changes in elevation these conditions for more
between the inlet and than a few seconds.
outlet openings.
 Flow Path LODD Simulation

Reproduced from: Madrzykowski, Daniel (2013) Fire

Dynamics: The Science of Fire Fighting. International Fire
Service Journal of Leadership and Management. Vol
7.Number 2, page 7 – 15. Tulsa, OK: Oklahoma State
University. Courtesy of National Institute of Standards
and Technology
 Ventilation and Flow Path Key Points

© Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Fire Growth and Development
• Amount of air entering • Amount of gases exiting
the fire area the fire area
• Opening a door or • Providing an opening in
window provides a roof creates an exit
oxygen to a ventilation flow path for hot fuel
limited fire • Accelerates air flow into
the fire as well as
spreading the fire along
the flow path
 Ventilation-Limited Fire Growth

Courtesy of NIST.
 Ventilation-Limited Fire Growth

Courtesy of NIST.
 Ventilation-Limited Fire Growth

Courtesy of NIST.
 Ventilation-Limited Fire Growth

Courtesy of NIST.
 Ventilation-Limited Fire Growth

Courtesy of NIST.
 Ventilation-Limited Fire Growth

Courtesy of NIST.
Controlling the Flow Path
• Limiting oxygen available to the fire until
suppression actions can take place can keep the fire
smaller and limit heat release rate (HRR).
• Since opening the front door is considered
ventilation, this action should be delayed until
suppression crews are ready to, or have already
cooled the fire area.
• Careful coordination between suppression and
ventilation is critical to a safe and effective
outcome.
NIST, UL, and FDNY Fire Flow Path
Findings
Applying Water: Coordinating Fire
Attack
• Primary means of
suppressing fires is
to apply water.
• Traditionally it has
been taught that
fires should be
fought from the
unburned side for
fear of pushing fire
with fire streams.
Courtesy of UL.
Transitional Attack Option
• Considered an offensive
exterior attack
• Purpose is to reduce fire
spread, limit HRR, and reduce
temperature to a safer level
• Reduction of flashover potential
• Used in sequence prior to entry
of lines into building if indicated
• Hit visible fire from outside then
enter structure for
extinguishment and other
operations

Courtesy of UL.
Exterior Offensive Fire Attack
Impact on Building Occupants

43
Pre/Post Water Application Temperature
Examples – Single Family House

44
Offensive Exterior or Transitional
Attack

Courtesy of UL. 45
Research-Based Fire Attack Key
Points
 Rescue and Safety Considerations
• All of the previously
discussed research
increases knowledge of
rescue techniques.
• Closing any door between
fire and other parts of
building will improve that
environment for occupants
or a trapped fire fighter.
• Vent-Enter-Search has
become Vent-Enter-Isolate-
Search.
Research-Based Search and Rescue
Key Points
 Basement Fires
• Basement fires present unique
hazards due to building
construction methods and
materials
• Void spaces and unfinished
raw materials often present
• Quick failure of structural
components is primary hazard
• Attack straight down stairs may
not be safe option since it
places personnel on the outlet
side of a uni-directional flow
path in most situations
Basement Fire Attack

50
Research-Based Basement Fire Key
Points
Continued Research
• Additional studies are underway or planned to
continue to study the most effective means of
applying water to a fire.
Summary
• Review Hot Terms
• Review all FF Key Points from article