Chapter 2: Introduction to Relational
Model
Example of a Relation
attributes
(or columns)
tuples
(or rows)
Attribute Types
The set of allowed values for each attribute is called the domain
of the attribute
Attribute values are (normally) required to be atomic; that is,
indivisible
The special value null is a member of every domain. Indicated
that the value is “unknown”
The null value causes complications in the definition of many
operations
Relation Schema and Instance
A1, A2, …, An are attributes
R = (A1, A2, …, An ) is a relation schema
Example:
instructor = (ID, name, dept_name, salary)
Formally, given sets D1, D2, …. Dn a relation r is a subset of
D1 x D2 x … x Dn
Thus, a relation is a set of n-tuples (a1, a2, …, an) where each ai Di
The current values (relation instance) of a relation are specified by
a table
An element t of r is a tuple, represented by a row in a table
Relations are Unordered
Order of tuples is irrelevant (tuples may be stored in an arbitrary order)
Example: instructor relation with unordered tuples
Keys
Let K R
K is a superkey of R if values for K are sufficient to identify a unique
tuple of each possible relation r(R)
Example: {ID} and {ID,name} are both superkeys of instructor.
Superkey K is a candidate key if K is minimal
Example: {ID} is a candidate key for Instructor
One of the candidate keys is selected to be the primary key.
which one?
Foreign key constraint: Value in one relation must appear in another
Referencing relation
Referenced relation
Example – dept_name in instructor is a foreign key from instructor
referencing department
Schema Diagram for University Database
Relational Query Languages
Procedural vs .non-procedural, or declarative
“Pure” languages:
Relational algebra
Tuple relational calculus
Domain relational calculus
The above 3 pure languages are equivalent in computing power
Select Operation – selection of rows (tuples)
Relation r
A=B ^ D > 5 (r)
Project Operation – selection of columns (Attributes)
Relation r:
A,C (r)
Union of two relations
Relations r, s:
r s:
Set difference of two relations
Relations r, s:
r – s:
Set intersection of two relations
Relation r, s:
rs
Note: r s = r – (r – s)
joining two relations -- Cartesian-product
Relations r, s:
r x s:
Cartesian-product – naming issue
Relations r, s: B
r x s: r.B s.B
Renaming a Table
Allows us to refer to a relation, (say E) by more than one name.
x (E)
returns the expression E under the name X
Relations r
r x s (r) r.A r.B s.A s.B
α 1 α 1
α 1 β 2
β 2 α 1
β 2 β 2
Composition of Operations
Can build expressions using multiple operations
Example: A=C (r x s)
rxs
A=C (r x s)
Joining two relations – Natural Join
Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively.
Then, the “natural join” of relations R and S is a relation on
schema R S obtained as follows:
Consider each pair of tuples tr from r and ts from s.
If tr and ts have the same value on each of the attributes in
R S, add a tuple t to the result, where
t has the same value as tr on r
t has the same value as ts on s
Natural Join Example
Relations r, s:
Natural Join
r s
A, r.B, C, r.D, E ( r.B = s.B ˄ r.D = s.D (r x s)))
Notes about Relational Languages
Each Query input is a table (or set of tables)
Each query output is a table.
All data in the output table appears in one of the input tables
Relational Algebra is not Turning complete
Can we compute:
SUM
AVG
MAX
MIN
Summary of Relational Algebra Operators
Symbol (Name) Example of Use
σ
(Selection) σ
salary > = 85000 (instructor)
Return rows of the input relation that satisfy the predicate.
Π
(Projection) Π
ID, salary (instructor)
Output specified attributes from all rows of the input relation. Remove
duplicate tuples from the output.
x
(Cartesian Product) instructor x department
Output pairs of rows from the two input relations that have the same value on
all attributes that have the same name.
∪
(Union) Π
name (instructor) ∪ Π
name (student)
Output the union of tuples from the two input relations.
-
(Set Difference) Π
name (instructor) -- Π
name (student)
Output the set difference of tuples from the two input relations.
⋈
(Natural Join) instructor ⋈ department
Output pairs of rows from the two input relations that have the same value on
all attributes that have the same name.
End of Chapter 2
