Analog Electronics

Frequency Effect

Chapter 6
 Content
Basic Concept
The Decibel
Bode Plots
Low-Frequency Amplifier Response
 The Input RC circuit
 The Output RC circuit
 The Bypass RC circuit
Total Low-Frequency Amplifier Response
 Basic Concept
 In the previous coverage of amplifiers, the capacitive reactance of the coupling
and bypass capacitors was assumed to be at the signal frequency and,
therefore, had no effect on an amplifier's gain or phase shift.
 Also, the internal transistor capacitances were assumed to be small enough to
neglect at the operating frequency.
 The frequency response of an amplifier is the change in gain or phase shift over
a specified range of input signal frequencies.
 Basic Concept
Effect of Coupling Capacitors
 The reactance of the capacitor is given by , which means it varies
inversely with frequency.
 At lower frequencies the reactance is greater, and it decreases as
the frequency increases and more signal voltage is dropped
across C1 and C3 . VCC

 Also, a phase shift is

introduced by the coupling R1 RC
C3 𝑣 𝑜𝑢𝑡
+
capacitors because C1 forms a C1
Rs +
lead circuit with the of the
amplifier and C3 forms a lead + RL
Vs 𝑣 𝑖𝑛

+
R2
circuit with RL in parallel with - RE C2

RC .
 Basic Concept
Effect of Bypass Capacitors
 At lower frequencies, the reactance of the bypass capacitor C2
becomes significant and the emitter is no longer at ac ground.
 The capacitive reactance in parallel with RE creates an
impedance that reduces the gain. VCC
 For example, when the frequency is sufficiently high
 The reactance
RC
 The voltage gain
 However, At lower frequencies Vin
𝑋𝐶≫0 
 The reactance
 The voltage gain
𝑍𝑒

+
RE 𝐶2
 The Decibel
 Decibels are a form of gain measurement and are commonly
used to express amplifier response.
 The decibel unit is important in amplifier measurements.
 The decibel is a logarithmic measurement of the ratio of one
power to another or one voltage (current) to another.
 Power gain is expressed in decibels (dB) by the following
formula

 Voltage gain is expressed in decibels by the following formula

 Current gain is expressed in decibels by the following formula

 The Decibel
The Critical Frequency
 The critical frequency (also known as cutoff frequency or
corner frequency) is the frequency at which the output
power drops to one-half of its midrange value. This
corresponds to a 3dB reduction in the power gain, as
expressed in dB by the following formula

 Also, at the critical frequency the output voltage is 70.7%

of its midrange value and is expressed in dB as
 Bode Plots
 A Bode plot is a graph of the transfer function of a linear, time-
invariant system versus frequency, plotted with a log-frequency
axis, to show the system's frequency response.
 It is usually a combination of a Bode magnitude plot, expressing
the magnitude of the frequency response gain, and a Bode phase
plot, expressing the frequency response phase shift.

 dB/Decade: A ten-times change in frequency is called a decade.

 dB/Octave: Sometimes, the voltage gain roll-off of an amplifier is
expressed in dB/Octave rather than dB/Decade. An octave
corresponds to a doubling or halving of the frequency
Bode Plots
 Bode Plots
For the transfer function
 For
Bode Diagram
The magnitude 20

15

Magnitude (dB)
10

5
The phase
0
 For  -5
91
The magnitude
90.5
Phase (deg)

90
The phase
89.5
 For ,
89
The magnitude 10
0 1
10
Frequency (rad/s)

The phase
 Bode Plots
For the transfer function
 For 
The magnitude
Bode Diagram
40

The phase 30

Magnitude (dB)
 For  20

The magnitude 10

0
The phase 90

 For  ,
Phase (deg)

45
The magnitude

0
The phase 10
-2 -1
10 10
0 1
10
2
10
Frequency (rad/s)
 Bode Plots
For the transfer function
 For
The magnitude 5
Bode Diagram

Magnitude (dB)
-5

The phase -10

-15
 For 
-20
The magnitude -89

-89.5
Phase (deg)

-90
The phase -90.5
 For , -91
0 1

The magnitude 10
Frequency (rad/s)
10

The phase
 Bode Plots
For the transfer function
 For 
The magnitude 0
Bode Diagram

-10

Magnitude (dB)
The phase -20
 For 
-30
The magnitude
-40
0

The phase
Phase (deg)

 For  -45

The magnitude
-90
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/s)
The phase
 Low-Frequency Amplifier Response
 A typical capacitively coupled common-emitter amplifier is
shown below, its midrange voltage gain is given

 Unlike the ac equivalent circuit used in previous chapters, which

represented midrange response ,
the low-frequency equivalent circuit VCC

retains the coupling and bypass

capacitors because is not R1 RC C3
+
small enough to neglect when Vin C1
+
the signal frequency is sufficiently low.

+
R2 RE C2 RL
 Low-Frequency Amplifier Response

The Input RC Circuit

 As the signal frequency decreases, increases.
 This causes less voltage across the input resistance of the
amplifier at the base because more voltage is dropped across
and because of this, the overall voltage gain of the amplifier is
reduced.
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 C3
𝑅𝑖𝑛 + Vout
 The base input voltageVin C1+
𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 )
The magnitude is RC RL
R1 R2

+
RE C2
The phase of is
 Low-Frequency Amplifier Response
 As mentioned before, a critical point in the amplifier's response occurs
when the output voltage is 70.7% of its midrange value . This condition
occurs in the input circuit when
Thus,
 The frequency at which , called the lower critical frequency (also
known as the lower cutoff frequency, lower corner frequency, or lower
break frequency) and can be calculated as follows:

Thus, the frequency

 If the resistance of the input source is taken into account, this
frequency is determined from
 Low-Frequency Amplifier Response
Example: For an input RC circuit in a certain amplifier and . Neglect the
source resistance
 Determine the lower critical frequency.

 What is the attenuation of the input RC circuit at the lower critical

frequency?
At , we get . Therefore
attenuation
 If the midrange voltage gain of the amplifier is 100, what is the gain at
the lower critical frequency?
we get
 Low-Frequency Amplifier Response
 Determine the actual voltage gain at

Bode Diagram
0

-10
Magnitude (dB)

-20

-30

-40

-50
90
Phase (deg)

45

0
1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/s)
 Low-Frequency Amplifier Response
The Output RC Circuit
 The second high-pass RC circuit in the above amplifier is formed by the
coupling capacitor , the resistance looking in at the collector, and the
load resistance . +
C3 Vout
 The ratio between the collector voltage and 𝛽 𝑎𝑐 𝑖𝑏
the output voltage is RC RL

 The magnitude
RC C3 Vout
+
 The phase
+

 The critical frequency of this output RC circuit is 𝑉𝐶 RL

-
 Low-Frequency Amplifier Response
Example: For an output RC circuit in a certain amplifier , , and .
(a) Determine the critical frequency.

(b) What is the attenuation of the output RC circuit at the midrange

frequencies and at the critical frequency?
 For the midrange frequencies ; thus, the attenuation of the circuit as
determined

 At the critical frequency ; thus, the attenuation of the circuit as

determined
 Low-Frequency Amplifier Response
(c) If the midrange voltage gain of the amplifier is 50, what is the gain at
the critical frequency?

Bode Diagram
0

-10
Magnitude (dB)

-20

-30

-40

-50
90
Phase (deg)

45

0
1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/s)
 Low-Frequency Amplifier Response
The Bypass RC Circuit
 The third RC circuit that affects the low-frequency gain of the BJT
amplifier is formed by and the resistance looking in at the emitter .
 First, Thévenin's theorem is applied looking from the base of the
transistor toward the input source . This results in an equivalent
resistance and an equivalent voltage source in series with the base as
shown below.
VCC

RC
C3
+
Rth
𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 )
+
𝐸 𝑡h RL
+

RE C2
-
 Low-Frequency Amplifier Response
 The resistance looking in at the capacitor is determined with the
equivalent input source shorted as (assume shorted)

 The critical frequency for this equivalent bypass RC circuit is

Rth C3 Vout
+

𝛽 𝑎𝑐 𝑖𝑏
𝑟 ′𝑒
+
Eth RC RL
-
+

RE C2
 Low-Frequency Amplifier Response
Example: Determine the critical frequency of the bypass RC circuit below.
 Thevenine the base circuit (looking from the base toward the input
source).

𝑉𝑠
 Low-Frequency Amplifier Response
 The emitter current

Thus, the resistance

 The critical frequency of the bypass RC circuit

 Total Low-Frequency Amplifier Response
VCC
C1 C2
Rs + Zout +

𝐴. 𝑣 𝑖𝑛
(a) CE amplifier R1 RC
+
C3 𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 +
Vs
𝑉 𝑖𝑛 Zin
𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 RL

C1 -
Rs +

+
(c) Its AC equivalent
RL
Vs 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 circuit with input and

+
R2 C2
- RE output impedances

𝑍 𝑜𝑢𝑡
C1
𝑍 𝑖𝑛 𝑍 𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒) 𝛽 𝑎𝑐 𝑖𝑏 C3
+ + Vout

Rs 𝑟 ′𝑒
+
𝑉 𝑖𝑛 R1 R2
RC RL
𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡
(b) Its AC

+
Vs C2
equivalent circuit RE
-
 Total Low-Frequency Amplifier Response

 The base input impedance

 The input impedance

 The output impedance

 The total voltage gain

 Total Low-Frequency Amplifier Response

Where
 The output voltage

 The input voltage (versus the voltage source )

 The input voltage (versus the base current )

So,

 The collector voltage (versus the base current )

 Total Low-Frequency Amplifier Response

 Thus, the total voltage gain

 Total Low-Frequency Amplifier Response

Example: Determine the total low-frequency response of the BJT

amplifier ( and )
 Total Low-Frequency Amplifier Response

 Each RC circuit is analyzed to determine its critical frequency.

For the input RC circuit with the source resistance, , taken into
account.

 For the bypass RC circuit

 Total Low-Frequency Amplifier Response

 For the output RC circuit

 The analysis shows that the input circuit produces the dominant
(which is the highest ) lower critical frequency. The midrange
voltage gain of the amplifier is

 The midrange attenuation of the input circuit is

 The overall voltage gain is

and is expressed in dB as
Total Low-Frequency Amplifier Response
Total Low-Frequency Amplifier Response
Bode Diagram
50

0
Magnitude (dB)

-50

-100

-150
405

360
Phase (deg)

315

270

225

180
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/s)
 Exercises
1. Determine the critical frequencies of each RC circuit in
Figure 1.
2. Consider the amplifier circuit in Figure 2.
a. Determine the critical frequencies associated with the
low-frequency response of the BJT amplifier. Which is the
dominant critical frequency? Sketch the Bode plot.
b. Determine the voltage gain of this amplifier at one-tenth
of the dominant critical frequency, at the dominant critical
frequency, and at ten times the dominant critical
frequency for the low-frequency response.
c. Determine the phase shift at each of the frequencies from
part (b).
 Exercises

Figure 1

𝛽 𝑑𝑐= 𝛽 𝑎𝑐=125

Figure 2

𝑉𝑠