Chapter 13: Data Storage Structures
Database System Concepts, 7th Ed.
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use
File Organization
The database is stored as a collection of files. Each file is a sequence of
records. A record is a sequence of fields.
One approach
• Assume record size is fixed
• Each file has records of one particular type only
• Different files are used for different relations
This case is easiest to implement; will consider variable length records
later
We assume that records are smaller than a disk block
DBMS files is not the operating system files. DBMS uses logical files. One
operating system file can contain multiple logical files, one logical file can be
divided to multiple parts and each part can be saved in separate operating
system file.
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Fixed-Length Records
Simple approach:
Store record i starting from byte n (i – 1), where n is the size of
each record.
Record access is simple but records may cross blocks
Modification: do not allow records to cross block boundaries
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Fixed-Length Records
Deletion of record i: alternatives:
move records i + 1, . . ., n to i, . . . , n – 1
move record n to i
do not move records, but link all free records on a free list
Record 3 deleted
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Fixed-Length Records
Deletion of record i: alternatives:
move records i + 1, . . ., n to i, . . . , n – 1
move record n to i
do not move records, but link all free records on a free list
Record 3 deleted and replaced by record 11
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Fixed-Length Records
Deletion of record i: alternatives:
move records i + 1, . . ., n to i, . . . , n – 1
move record n to i
do not move records, but link all free records on a free list
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Variable-Length Records
Variable-length records arise in database systems in several ways:
Storage of multiple record types in a file.
Record types that allow variable lengths for one or more fields such
as strings (varchar)
Record types that allow repeating fields (used in some older data
models).
Attributes are stored in order
Variable length attributes represented by fixed size (offset, length), with
actual data stored after all fixed length attributes
Null values represented by null-value bitmap
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Variable-Length Records: Slotted Page Structure
Slotted page header contains:
number of record entries
end of free space in the block
location and size of each record
Records can be moved around within a page to keep them contiguous
with no empty space between them; entry in the header must be
updated.
Pointers should not point directly to record — instead they should point
to the entry for the record in header.
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Storing Large Objects
E.g., blob/clob types
Records must be smaller than pages
Alternatives:
• Store as files in file systems
• Store as files managed by database
• Break into pieces and store in multiple tuples in separate relation
PostgreSQL TOAST
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Organization of Records in Files
Heap – record can be placed anywhere in the file where there is space
Sequential – store records in sequential order, based on the value of the
search key of each record
In a multitable clustering file organization records of several different
relations can be stored in the same file
Motivation: store related records on the same block to minimize I/O
B+-tree file organization
Ordered storage even with inserts/deletes
Hashing – a hash function computed on search key; the result specifies in
which block of the file the record should be placed
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Heap File Organization
Records can be placed anywhere in the file where there is free space
Records usually do not move once allocated
Important to be able to efficiently find free space within file
Free-space map
• Array with 1 entry per block. Each entry is a few bits to a byte, and
records fraction of block that is free
• In example below, 3 bits per block, value divided by 8 indicates
fraction of block that is free
• Can have second-level free-space map
• In example below, each entry stores maximum from 4 entries of first-
level free-space map
Free space map written to disk periodically, OK to have wrong (old) values
for some entries (will be detected and fixed)
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Sequential File Organization
Suitable for applications that require sequential processing of
the entire file
The records in the file are ordered by a search-key
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Sequential File Organization (Cont.)
Deletion – use pointer chains
Insertion –locate the position where the record is to be inserted
if there is free space insert there
if no free space, insert the record in an overflow block
In either case, pointer chain must be updated
Need to reorganize the file
from time to time to restore
sequential order
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Multitable Clustering File Organization
Store several relations in one file using a multitable clustering
file organization
department
instructor
multitable clustering
of department and
instructor
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Multitable Clustering File Organization (cont.)
good for queries involving department ⨝ instructor, and for queries
involving one single department and its instructors
bad for queries involving only department
results in variable size records
Can add pointer chains to link records of a particular relation
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Partitioning
Table partitioning: Records in a relation can be partitioned into smaller
relations that are stored separately
E.g., transaction relation may be partitioned into
transaction_2018, transaction_2019, etc.
Queries written on transaction must access records in all partitions
• Unless query has a selection such as year=2019, in which case only
one partition in needed
Partitioning
• Reduces costs of some operations such as free space management
• Allows different partitions to be stored on different storage devices
E.g., transaction partition for current year on SSD, for older years
on magnetic disk
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Data Dictionary Storage
The Data dictionary (also called system catalog) stores
metadata; that is, data about data, such as
Information about relations
names of relations
names, types and lengths of attributes of each relation
names and definitions of views
integrity constraints
User and accounting information, including passwords
Statistical and descriptive data
number of tuples in each relation
Physical file organization information
How relation is stored (sequential/hash/…)
Physical location of relation
Information about indices (Chapter 14)
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Relational Representation of System Metadata
Relational
representation on
disk
Specialized data
structures designed
for efficient access,
in memory
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
File and block sets
Assume, we need to store information about companies, products and
supplies. Each record is one block long.
Database is empty at the beginning. It has only empty block set, that
contains all database blocks. All blocks are numbered sequentially.
Companies rows C1-C5 are stored first, then product information P1-P6
are stored and then delivery information C1/P1-C5/P6 are stored.
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
File and block sets
0 1 2 3 4 5
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
6 7 8 9 10 11
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6
12 13 14 15 16 17
C1/P1 C1/P2 C1/P3 C1/P4 C1/P5 C1/P6
18 19 20 21 22 23
C2/P1 C2/P2 C3/P2 C4/P2 C4/P4 C4/P5
24 25 26 27 28 29
Companies set consists of blocks 1-5
Products set consists of blocks 6-11
Deliveries set consists of blocks 12-23
Empty block set consists of blocks 24-29
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
File and block sets
0 1 2 3 4 5
C1 X
C2 C3 C4 C5
6 7 8 9 10 11
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6
12 13 14 15 16 17
C1/P1 C1/P2 C1/P3 C1/P4 C1/P5 C1/P6
18 19 20 21 22 23
C2/P1 C2/P2 C3/P2 C4/P2 C4/P4 C4/P5
24 25 26 27 28 29
Delete record for company C2
Block Nr 2 is inserted into empty block set
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
File and block sets
0 1 2 3 4 5
C1 C3 C4 C5
6 7 8 9 10 11
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6
12 13 14 15 16 17
C1/P1 C1/P2 C1/P3 C1/P4 C1/P5 C1/P6
18 19 20 21 22 23
C2/P1 C2/P2 C3/P2 C4/P2 C4/P4 C4/P5
24 25 26 27 28 29
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
File and block sets
0 1 2 3 4 5
C1 P7 C3 C4 C5
6 7 8 9 10 11
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6
12 13 14 15 16 17
C1/P1 C1/P2 C1/P3 C1/P4 C1/P5 C1/P6
18 19 20 21 22 23
C2/P1 C2/P2 C3/P2 C4/P2 C4/P4 C4/P5
24 25 26 27 28 29
Insert record for product P7
Block is taken from empty block set (block Nr 2) and information of product P7 is
inserted into that block
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
File and block sets
0 1 2 3 4 5
C1 P7 C3 C4 C5
6 7 8 9 10 11
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6
12 13 14 15 16 17
C1/P1 C1/P2 C1/P3 C1/P4 C1/P5 C1/P6
18 19 20 21 22 23
C2/P1 C2/P2 C3/P2 C4/P2 C4/P4 C4/P5
24 25 26 27 28 29
C6
Insert record for company C6
Block is taken from empty block set (block Nr 24) and information of company C6 is
inserted into that block
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
File and block sets
0 1 2 3 4 5
C1 P7 C3 X
C4 C5
6 7 8 9 10 11
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6
12 13 14 15 16 17
C1/P1 C1/P2 C1/P3 C1/P4 C1/P5 C1/P6
18 19 20 21 22 23
C2/P1 C2/P2 C3/P2 C4/P2 C4/P4 C4/P5
24 25 26 27 28 29
C6
Delete record for company C4
Block Nr 4 is inserted into empty block set
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
File and block sets
0 1 2 3 4 5
C1 P7 C3 C5
6 7 8 9 10 11
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6
12 13 14 15 16 17
C1/P1 C1/P2 C1/P3 C1/P4 C1/P5 C1/P6
18 19 20 21 22 23
C2/P1 C2/P2 C3/P2 C4/P2 C4/P4 C4/P5
24 25 26 27 28 29
C6
Database still contains information about deliveries of companies C2 and C4!
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
File and block sets
0 null 1 3 2 null 3 5 4 25 5 24
C1 P7 C3 C5
6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 2
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6
12 13 13 14 14 15 15 16 16 17 17 18
C1/P1 C1/P2 C1/P3 C1/P4 C1/P5 C1/P6
18 19 19 20 20 21 21 22 22 23 23 null
C2/P1 C2/P2 C3/P2 C4/P2 C4/P4 C4/P5
24 null 25 26 26 27 27 28 28 29 29 30
C6
Each block has its number and number of next block in
the set to which belongs this block. Blocks of each set
form linked list of blocks.
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Storage Access
Blocks are units of both storage allocation and data transfer.
Database system seeks to minimize the number of block transfers
between the disk and memory. We can reduce the number of disk
accesses by keeping as many blocks as possible in main memory.
Buffer – portion of main memory available to store copies of disk blocks.
Buffer manager – subsystem responsible for allocating buffer space in
main memory.
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Buffer Manager
Programs call on the buffer manager when they need a block from disk.
• If the block is already in the buffer, buffer manager returns the
address of the block in main memory
• If the block is not in the buffer, the buffer manager
Allocates space in the buffer for the block
• Replacing (throwing out) some other block, if required, to make
space for the new block.
• Replaced block written back to disk only if it was modified
since the most recent time that it was written to/fetched from
the disk.
Reads the block from the disk to the buffer, and returns the
address of the block in main memory to requester.
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.29 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Buffer Manager
Buffer replacement strategy (details coming up!)
Pinned block: memory block that is not allowed to be written back to disk
• Pin done before reading/writing data from a block
• Unpin done when read /write is complete
• Multiple concurrent pin/unpin operations possible
Keep a pin count, buffer block can be evicted only if pin count = 0
Shared and exclusive locks on buffer
• Needed to prevent concurrent operations from reading page contents
as they are moved/reorganized, and to ensure only one
move/reorganize at a time
• Readers get shared lock, updates to a block require exclusive lock
• Locking rules:
Only one process can get exclusive lock at a time
Shared lock cannot be concurrently with exclusive lock
Multiple processes may be given shared lock concurrently
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.30 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Buffer-Replacement Policies
Most operating systems replace the block least recently used (LRU
strategy)
• Idea behind LRU – use past pattern of block references as a predictor
of future references
• LRU can be bad for some queries
Queries have well-defined access patterns (such as sequential scans),
and a database system can use the information in a user’s query to predict
future references
Mixed strategy with hints on replacement strategy provided
by the query optimizer is preferable
Example of bad access pattern for LRU: when computing the join of 2
relations r and s by a nested loops
for each tuple tr of r do
for each tuple ts of s do
if the tuples tr and ts match …
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.31 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Buffer-Replacement Policies (Cont.)
Toss-immediate strategy – frees the space occupied by a block as soon
as the final tuple of that block has been processed
Most recently used (MRU) strategy – system must pin the block
currently being processed. After the final tuple of that block has been
processed, the block is unpinned, and it becomes the most recently used
block.
Buffer manager can use statistical information regarding the probability
that a request will reference a particular relation
• E.g., the data dictionary is frequently accessed. Heuristic: keep
data-dictionary blocks in main memory buffer
Operating system or buffer manager may reorder writes
• Can lead to corruption of data structures on disk
E.g., linked list of blocks with missing block on disk
File systems perform consistency check to detect such situations
• Careful ordering of writes can avoid many such problems
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.32 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Optimization of Disk Block Access (Cont.)
Buffer managers support forced output of blocks for the purpose of recovery
(more in Chapter 19)
Nonvolatile write buffers speed up disk writes by writing blocks to a non-
volatile RAM or flash buffer immediately
• Writes can be reordered to minimize disk arm movement
Log disk – a disk devoted to writing a sequential log of block updates
• Used exactly like nonvolatile RAM
Write to log disk is very fast since no seeks are required
Journaling file systems write data in-order to NV-RAM or log disk
• Reordering without journaling: risk of corruption of file system data
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.33 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Column-Oriented Storage
Also known as columnar representation
Store each attribute of a relation separately
Example
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.34 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Columnar Representation
Benefits:
• Reduced IO if only some attributes are accessed
• Improved CPU cache performance
• Improved compression
• Vector processing on modern CPU architectures
Drawbacks
• Cost of tuple reconstruction from columnar representation
• Cost of tuple deletion and update
• Cost of decompression
Columnar representation found to be more efficient for decision support than
row-oriented representation
Traditional row-oriented representation preferable for transaction processing
Some databases support both representations
• Called hybrid row/column stores
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.35 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Columnar File Representation
ORC and Parquet: file
formats with columnar
storage inside file
Very popular for big-data
applications
Orc file format shown on
right:
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.36 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Storage Organization in Main-Memory Databases
Can store records directly in
memory without a buffer manager
Column-oriented storage can be
used in-memory for decision
support applications
• Compression reduces
memory requirement
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.37 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
End of Chapter 13
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 13.38 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
