Dr. D. Y.

Patil Institute of Technology, Pimpri,

Pune

Department of Electronics & Telecommunication

Unit-II
Engineering
AM transmission & reception for signal tone

Dr. Anup Vibhute

 Teaching and Examination scheme for
Principles of communication systems

Teaching
Examination scheme Credits
scheme
Cours Course
Theory
e code name Practical Practical
Practical
Theory Total Theory s
s In- End s
sem Sem

Principles of
204193 Communication 03 30 70 100 03
Systems (PoCS)
Principles of
01
204196 Communication 02 50 50
Systems (PoCS)
 Course Objectives
•To equip/ familiarize students with basic mathematical tools for time and
frequency domain analysis of communication signal and systems.

•To acquaint the students with the fundamental principles of modulation

process and different amplitude and angle modulation systems.

•To introduce the students with the concept of Sampling theorem and
pulse modulation techniques PAM, PWM, PPM.

•To impart pre-requisites of digital communication systems and explore

digital representation techniques like PCM, DPCM, DM and ADM.

•To highlight the issues in baseband digital transmission such as data

representation, synchronization, multiplexing and ISI .
 Course Outcomes
Course Outcomes: On completion of the course, learner will be able to -
CO1: To compute & compare the bandwidth and transmission power requirements
by analyzing time and frequency domain spectra of signal required for
modulation schemes under study.
CO2: Describe and analyze the techniques of generation, transmission and
reception of Amplitude Modulation Systems.
CO3: Explain generation and detection of FM systems and compare with AM
systems.
CO4: Exhibit the importance of Sampling Theorem and correlate with Pulse
Modulation technique (PAM, PWM, and PPM).
CO5: Characterize the quantization process and elaborate digital representation
techniques (PCM, DPCM, DM and ADM).
CO6: Illustrate waveform coding, multiplexing and synchronization techniques
and articulate their importance in baseband digital transmission.
 Syllabus for Unit II
AM transmission & reception
Unit II (08 Hrs)
for signal tone

Need for frequency translation, Amplitude modulation (DSB-FC),

Double sideband Suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulation, Single
sideband modulation ( SSB), Vestigial Sideband modulation
(VSB),Spectrum and Bandwidth of AM, DSB-SC, SSB & VSB,
Calculation of modulation index for AM wave, Modulation index for
more than one modulating signals, Power and power efficiency, AM
reception .

Mapping of Course CO2: Describe and analyze the techniques of

Outcomes for Unit generation, transmission and reception of Amplitude
II Modulation Systems.
 References

Text Books for Unit II:

• George Kennedy, “Electronic Communication Systems” 5th Edition,

McGraw-Hill.

• B. P. Lathi, “Modern Digital and Analog. Communication Systems”, 4th

Edition, Oxford University Press.

• Taub& Schilling, “Principles of Communication Systems”, Tata McGraw-

Hill, 4th Edition.
 Unit No. II

AM Transmission and Reception for

signal tone
 
 Contents
• Need for Modulation
• Amplitude modulation (DSB-FC)
• Double sideband Suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulation
• Single sideband modulation ( SSB)
• Vestigial Sideband modulation (VSB)
• Spectrum and Bandwidth of AM, DSB-SC, SSB & VSB,
• Calculation of modulation index for AM wave, Modulation
index for more than one modulating signals, Power and power
efficiency
• AM reception
 Unit II: Objectives

•To understand base band signals and pass band communication

•To study generation methods of various Amplitude Modulation (AM)
schemes (such as DSBSC, SSB, ISB and VSB).
•Plot frequency spectrum of different AM and compute the required
bandwidth for AM channel
•Derive power relation in AM and compute power required for AM
transmission.
•Define and calculate Modulation index
•To understand the concept of suppressing the carrier in DSBSC and
SSB techniques.
•To describe the AM transmitters and different modulation techniques
 
 Unit II: Outcomes
Upon completing Unit II, the student will be able to:
• Describe the theory of amplitude modulation techniques
• Compute the modulation index of AM
• Draw an AM, DSBSC, SSB, ISB and VSB signals
• Analyze and determine the carrier power and sideband power in AM
and its variants
• Solve problems involving frequency components, power, current and
bandwidth calculations
• Understand the differences between AM and its variants
• Explain different approaches for the generation of AM, DSBSC,
SSB,ISB and VSB signals.
• Detection of AM, DSBSC, SSB.
 Pre-requisites

1. Electromagnetic spectrum
 
2. Non linear characteristics of switching devices
 
3. Basic block diagram of communication system
 
 Time for ??????

• What is Communication? What are its examples?

• What is Communication System?

• What are various information sources?

• What are available communication channels?

Basics of Analog
Communication
 Base band Communication
Carrier (Pass Band)Communication

•Communication systems are classified

according to the range of frequencies they
Communicatio use to transmit information
n systems
•Base band and Pass band / carrier
systems
Carrier/
Baseband •Base band communication is without any
Pass band
modulation
•Carrier communication is with modulation
•Shifting the baseband signal to higher
frequency
 Base Band Signal and Communication

– Base Band Signal is band of frequencies of the signal delivered by the

source
– They have sizable powers at lower frequencies 
– Telephony – band of voice signals (0 to 3.5kHz)
– Television – band of video (0 to 4.3kHz)
– Digital data or PCM ( 0 to Rate Hz)

 Eg.
• Communication between two telephones
• Video Communication
• Digital transmission of analog signals
• Communication between two PCs
Analog Modulation Techniques

Pass Band
communicati
Analog Modulation
on

Amplitude Angle Modulation

Modulation
(Non – Linear
(Linear Modulation)
Modulation)

Frequency Phase
Modulation Modulation
 Need of modulation

• Reduces height of antenna

• Avoids mixing of signals
• Increases range of communication
• Allows multiplexing of signals
• Allows adjustments in BW
• Improves quality of reception
 Modulation

• The process of shifting the base band signal to pass band is

known as Modulation

• Basic parameter (characteristics) such as amplitude, frequency

or phase of a sinusoidal signal known as carrier of high
frequency is varied in proportion to the baseband signal

• What is Modulation?
• Define AM
Theoretical Approach
to Amplitude
Modulation
 Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude modulation (AM) is a process in which the amplitude of
a carrier signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value
of the modulating signal m(t).
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
 AM waveform representation:
Time Domain Representation (TDR)
 Mathematical model of the AM wave
Let us assume m(t) and
c(t) be the modulating and
the carrier signal.
Let they be represented as
 Mathematical model of the AM wave

We introduce a new term called “modulation index” here to

define the quality of the AM wave. It is represented by ‘m’

‘m’ takes the value

between 0 to 1
It is also expressed as
percentage modulation
index (0 to 100%)

This is the mathematical

model or the
mathematical expression
for the “Amplitude
Modulation”
Modulation Index and Percent of Modulation

• Used to describe the amount of amplitude change

(modulation) present in an AM waveform.

• Percentage modulation (%m) is simply the modulation index

(m) stated as a percentage.

• More specifically percent modulation gives the percentage

change in the amplitude of the output wave when the carrier is
acted on by a modulating signal.
Modulation Index and Percent of Modulation
Cont’d…

• Mathematically, the modulation index is

m = modulation index
Em = peak amplitude of the modulating signal
Ec = peak amplitude of the unmodulated carrier

• And the percentage of modulation index is

 AM mathematical representation
• Modulating signal vm  Vm sin mt

• Carrier signal vc  Vc sin ct

• Modulation index m  Vm
Vc

• Amplitude of AM wave A  Vc (1 m sin

mt)
• Instantaneous voltage of AM wave
 Asin ct
v AM
 Vc (1 m sin m t) sin
c t
 Analysis of the AM wave
• We know the expression for the AM wave.

• Simplifying the above expression we get

 Analysis of the AM wave

v AM  Vc sin ct c
cos( c  m )t  c
cos(c  m )t
2 2


Un-modulated
carrier Lower Upper
sideband sideband
(LSB) (USB)
AM mathematical representation using
frequency shifting property

• Base band signal m(t)  M

()
• AM containing only two sidebands

1
m(t) cos  t  2 [M (  c
c )
c

 M (   Upper )] Lower
sideband sideband
(USB) (LSB)
 AM Frequency Domain Representation (FDR)
(AM spectrum)

Single tone BW: Figure shows the one-sided frequency

spectrum of single-toned AM wave.
Amplitude
Carrier band
Vc
mVc mVc
Modulating
band 2 2

0 c c c  m  (rad
m sec)
m
USB
LSB
AM Frequency Domain Representation (FDR)
AM frequency domain representation
(AM spectrum)

Multi tone BW
 Bandwidth of AM

For single tone modulation

BW  f H  f L

 fUSB  f LSB
(fc  fm )  ( f c  fm )
BW  2 f m

For multi tone modulation

BW  ( f c  f m max )  ( f c  fm max )
BW  2 f m max
 Bandwidth (BW)

• The BW of an AM DSBFC wave is equal to the difference

between the highest upper side frequency and lowest lower
side frequency:

• BW = [fc + fm(max)] – [fc – fm(max)]

= 2fm(max)

• For efficiency transmission the carrier and sidebands must be

high enough to be propagated thru earth’s atmosphere.
Modulation Index from AM wave
 Modulation Index from AM wave
From the given
AM wave, we
can get the
values of Vm and
Vc in terms of
Vmax and Vmin
 Modulation Index for trapezoidal patterns
Trapezoidal representation of the
AM wave
 Modulation Index for trapezoidal patterns

Trapezoidal representation of the

AM wave

• Modulation index, m can be

calculated using the
equation:
m = Emax – Emin/ Emax +
Emin
= Em / Ec
= (A - B) / (A + B)
AM wave as under, 100% and Over modulated
AM wave as under, 100% and Over modulated

0  m 
Modulation index range :
1

m  1, (Vm  Vc )
100% modulation
Requires high transmission power

m  1, (V m  V c )
Under modulation
Most preferably used

m  1, (V m 
Vc )
Over modulation
Must be avoided
AM wave as under, 100% and Over modulated

01 For proper AM operation, Ec > Em means

(under
This is modulation)
a sample text. that
Insert0 your
≤ m text
≤ 1.here.

If Ec < Em means that m > 1 (over

02 modulation) and leads to severe distortion
This is a sample text. Insert your text here.
of the modulated wave.

If Vc = Vm the % of modulation index

03 goes to 100%, means the maximum
This is a sample text. Insert your text here.
information signal is transmitted.
 Power, voltage and
current relations in
Amplitude Modulation
 AM Power
• In radio transmission, the AM signal is amplified ed by a
power amplifier and fed to the antenna with a characteristic
impedance that is ideally, but not necessarily, almost pure
resistance.
• The AM signal is really a composite of several signal voltages,
namely, the carrier and the two sidebands, and each of these
signals produces power in the antenna.

• original AM equation:
 AM Power
• Vc and Vm are peak values of the carrier and modulating sine
waves, respectively.
• For power calculations, rms values must be used for the voltages.
• We can convert from peak to rms by dividing the peak value by or
multiplying by 0.707. The rms carrier and sideband voltages are
then

• The power in the carrier and sidebands can be calculated by using

the power formula P = V2/R, where P is the output power, V is the
rms output voltage, and R is the resistive part of the load
impedance, which is usually an antenna
 AM Power

Finally, we get a handy formula for computing the total power in an

AM signal when the carrier power and the percentage of
modulation are known:
 Power relations in AM

• The AM wave
consists of three
components:
carrier, and a pair
of side bands.

• The power of the

AM wave is equal
to the sum of the
power of all the
three elements
 Power relations in AM

V c2 PSB  PLSB  PUSB

Pc 
2R m 2 Pc  m 2 Pc

4
m 4Pc
 2
2

PT  Pc  PSB
m 2 Pc
 Pc 
2
 Pc  1  m 2 
 2 
• In the real world, it is difficult to determine AM power by
measuring the output voltage and calculating the power with
the expression P=V2/R. However, it is easy to measure the
current in the load.
• When the antenna impedance is known, the output power is
easily calculated by using the formula

• One way to find the percentage of modulation is to measure

both the modulated and the unmodulated antenna currents.
Then, by algebraically rearranging the formula above, m can
be calculated directly:
• The power in each sideband PSB is given by

• Spectrum can be represented in time domain as follows

• The carrier power represents two-thirds of the total transmitted

power
• The carrier itself conveys no information
• The carrier can be transmitted and received, but unless modulation
occurs, no information will be transmitted.
• When modulation occurs, sidebands are produced. It is easy to
conclude, therefore, that all the transmitted information is
contained within the sidebands.
• Only one-third of the total transmitted power is allotted to the
sidebands, and the remaining two-thirds is literally wasted on the
carrier.
 Voltage and Current relations in AM
From the power relations we can get the voltage and current
relations
 Modulation index in multi tone AM
• In practical situations, there are more
than one modulating signals, then it is The total voltage of all the
Multi tone AM . The modulation index modulating signals will be
in such cases is calculated.

• Let the modulating signals be

represented as m1(t), m2(t), m3(t) and so
on……..

• We know, m = Vm/Vc, like wise,

Modulation index for each of the
modulating signals will be
 Power relations in multi tone AM
• When more than one modulating signal modulates the carrier,
the power of the AM wave is

• Similarly,
 Transmission Efficiency in AM
Ratio of useful power to the total power

where PSB is the total sidebands power that contains information

It shows that the PSB is

dependent on m.
 Transmission Efficiency in AM

• The transmission efficiency with m = 1 is only 33.33%

practically still less on the order of 25% or lower.

• Only 1/3rd of the transmitted power is used for carrying info

• Efficiency increases monotonically with m

Examples:
Examples

• A carrier of 1000 W is modulated with a resulting

modulation index of 0. 8. What is the total power?

• What is the carrier power if the total power is 1000

W and the modulation index is 0.95?

• Suppose that Vmax value read from the graticule on an

oscilloscope screen is 4.6 divisions and Vmin is 0.7
divisions. Calculate the modulation index and
percentage of modulation.
 Examples
For the AM waveform shown in Figure below,
determine
a) Peak amplitude of the upper and lower side
frequencies.
b) Peak amplitude of the unmodulated carrier.
c) Peak change in the amplitude of the envelope.
d) Modulation index.
e) Percent modulation.
AM Envelope for Example
 Examples
• Numerical 1: A 400 watt carrier is modulated to a depth of
75 %. Calculate the total power in the modulated wave.
• Solution:  2 
PT  Pc 1 m   4001 0.75   512.5 W
2

 2   2 

• Note: Refer page no. 38 to 42 for more solved

numerical from G. Kennedy
 Applications of AM

• It is used in AM radio broadcasting, CB radio, TV

broadcasting, and aircraft tower communication.

• Some simple control radios use ASK because of its

simplicity. Examples are garage door openers and remote
keyless entry devices on cars.

• AM is also widely used in combination with phase

modulation to produce quadrature amplitude modulation
(QAM) which facilitates high-speed data transmissions in
modems, cable TV, and some wireless applications.
 Disadvantages of AM

• Needs large bandwidth

• Requires more power for transmission

• Maximum power is wasted in carrier.

• Highly affected due to noise.

 Transmission Efficiency

• Transmission efficiency of AM signal is defined as the

percentage of total AM power contained in the sidebands

• It may be recalled here that total AM power is the sum of carrier power and the
sidebands power. The carrier power does not carry any information. It is only the
sidebands which carry the Information signal.
Amplitude Modulation
(AM) Transmitters
AM Transmitters

• Low level
Transmitters

• High level
Transmitters
Low Level AM Transmitters
High Level AM Transmitter
 AM Generation
• There are a variety of methods available for generating
amplitude modulated signals. However, amplitude modulators
may be classified into the following types, depending on the
technique used
• 1. Modulators using non-linear devices
• 2. Modulators using product devices
• 3. Modulators using switching devices
 AM Generation: Multiplier
• AM can be generated using linear and non linear devices
• We know that AM can be generated by multiply the carrier by
the modulating signal and then add the carrier. A block
diagram of such a circuit is shown

• One way to do this is to develop a circuit whose gain (or

attenuation) is a function of 1 + m sin 2fm t. If we call that gain
A, the expression for the AM signal becomes
 AM Generation: Non linear device
• Another way to generate the product of the carrier and modulating signal
is to apply both signals to a nonlinear component or circuit, ideally one
that generates a square-law function.
• A square-law function is one that varies in proportion to the square of the
input signals.
• Diode gives a good approximation of a square-law response. Bipolar and
field- effect transistors (FETs) can also be biased to give a square-law
response.
• An FET gives a near-perfect square-law response, whereas diodes and
bipolar transistors, which contain higher-order components, only
approximate the square-law function.
• The current variation in a typical semiconductor diode can be
approximated by the
• Equation i = av+bv2
• where a is a linear component of the current equal to the applied voltage
multiplied by the coefficient a (usually a dc bias) and bv2 is second-order
or square-law component of the current.
AM Generation: Non linear device
AM Generation: Non linear device
 AM Generation: Non linear device

• In the above modulator, the tank circuit connected between

the drain and source or at output stage is tuned to the carrier
frequency fc and it is ensured that it has a reasonably low Q
to give a bandwidth that is twice the modulating signal
bandwidth.
 AM Generation: Switching device
• To produce AM, the carrier and modulating signals are added
and applied to the nonlinear device. A simple way to do this is
to connect the carrier and modulating sources in series and
apply them to the diode circuit
• The voltage applied to the diode is then

• The diode current in the resistor is

 AM Generation:
• Substituting the trigonometric
expressions for the carrier and
modulating signals as shown below.
• These modulators make use of a
switch, which may be a diode or a
transistor. This switch allows current to
flow through the load (a tank circuit
tuned to the carrier frequency) in the
form of truncated sinusoidal pulses
occurring at regular intervals of (1/fc),
where fc is the carrier frequency. If
these current pulses are made to vary
with the amplitude of the modulating
signal, it is possible to get an amplitude
modulated wave across
• the load.
 AM Generation: Switching Device
• The output waveform is shown in Fig. This waveform is a
normal AM wave to which the modulating signal has been
added.
 AM Detector

• Two Types:
– Coherent Detection
• Rely on regenerating carrier and mixing with AM wave,
creates sum and difference. Difference is original
modulating signal
– Non Coherent Detection
• Do not rely on regenerating carrier, modulated envelop
followed by low pass filter.
Amplitude Demodulators

A diode detector AM demodulator.

Practical Diode detector
 Amplitude Demodulators
Diode Detector
– On positive alternations of the AM signal, the capacitor charges
quickly to the peak value of pulses passed by the diode.
– When the pulse voltage drops to zero, the capacitor discharges into the
resistor.
– The time constant of the capacitor and resistor is long compared to the
period of the carrier.
– The capacitor discharges only slightly when the diode is not
conducting.
– The resulting waveform across the capacitor is a close approximation
to the original modulating signal.
– Because the diode detector recovers the envelope of the AM
(modulating) signal, the circuit is sometimes called an envelope
detector.
Rectifier Detector: Time Domain
 Envelope Detection

• The operations of the circuit requires

careful selection of t=RC
• If RC is too large, discharging will be
slow and the circuit cannot follow a
decreasing envelope.
• When RC is too small the ripples will
be high.
• 1/(2pB) << t << 1/wc
• The ripples are finally removed by
LPF.
• The DC value is blocked by a capacitor.
Envelope Detection Waveform
 AM Detector : Square-Law detector
• AM signal can be demodulated by squaring it and then
passing through a low pass filter.

• Transfer characteristic of nonlinear device is given by

 AM Detector : Square-Law detector
• Am Wave is represented as

•
Amplitude Modulation
Techniques
Introduction to various forms of Amplitude
modulation

• Need for various form of AM due to power wastage in AM

(DSB-FC)

• Types of AM techniques

• Power saving in DSB-SC , SSB and VSB with examples of

power relations.
 Various forms of Amplitude modulation

Double-Side Band
Double-Side Band Full Single-Side Band
suppressed carrier
Carrier (DSB-FC) (SSB)
(DSB-SC)

Vestigial Side Band Independent Side band

(VSB) (ISB)
 Various forms of Amplitude modulation

• Double Sideband with carrier (we will call it AM): This is the most widely used
type of AM modulation. In fact, all radio channels in the AM band use this type of
modulation.

• Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC): This is the same as the AM

modulation above but without the carrier.

• Single Sideband (SSB): In this modulation, only half of the signal of the DSBSC
is used.

• Vestigial Sideband (VSB): This is a modification of the SSB to ease the

generation and reception of the signal.
 AM Generation Techniques

AM Generation: DSB Generation SSB Generation

• Analog Multipliers • Multiplier or product • Filter method with

modulator analysis
• Non linear • Phase shift method
Characteristics of BJTS • Third method or
and FETs with Weaver’s method
mathematical approach
• BM in detail with
mathematical approach
• Ring Modulators
• Lattice Modulators
• Switching circuits
Analog Multiplier AM Modulator

m(t) Analog ∑
Multiplier DSBFC
Modulating Modulated wave
Signal
C(t)
Carrier
Signal
 Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier
(DSB-SC) Modulation

• The carrier component in full AM or DSB-FC does not convey

any information. 2/3 of transmitted power which appears in
carrier is wasted
• Hence it may be removed or suppressed during the modulation
process to attain higher power efficiency.
• When carrier is removed, the remaining signal consists of USB
and LSB such signals are referred as Double sideband
suppressed carrier (DSBSC or DSB)
• No power is wasted on carrier and it can be utilized to make
sidebands stronger
 Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier
(DSB-SC) Modulation
• The trade off of achieving a higher power efficiency using DSB-
SC is at the expense of requiring a complex and expensive
receiver due to the absence of carrier in order to maintain
transmitter/receiver synchronization.
• The equation for DSBSC AM signal is given as
s(t) = c(t). m(t)
= Ac cos(2πfct).m(t)
• Frequency domain represented as
S(f)= Ac [ M(f-fc) + M(f+fc) ]
 Generation of DSB-SC
• The simplest method of generating a DSB-SC signal is merely
to filter out the carrier portion of a full AM (or DSB-SC)
waveform.

• Given carrier reference, modulation can be implemented using

product devices or balanced modulators.
Block Diagram of the DSB-SC modulator

X
 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier Modulation (DSB-SC)

1 Consider the carrier

2 modulated by a single sinusoidal signal

3 The modulated signal is simply the product of these two

 Non-Linear Devices (NLD)

• A NLD is a device whose input-output relation is non-linear. One

such example is the diode (iD=evD/vT).

• The output of a NLD can be expressed as a power series of the

input, that is
y(t) = ax(t) + bx2(t) + cx3(t) + …
• When x(t) << 1, the higher powers can be neglected, and the output
can be approximated by the first two terms.
• When the input x(t) is the sum of two signal, m(t)+c(t), x2(t) will
have the product term m(t)c(t)
 Nonlinear Resistance Characteristics
• AM signal is generated using nonlinear device such as a
semiconductor diode or a transistor.
• Input output characteristics of nonlinear device is approximated
by power series

i Positive i  a  bv 
C cv2
Negative C
a : dc component
b: conductance
c: coefficient of
nonlinearity

v
 Balanced Modulator

• A balanced modulator is a circuit that generates a DSB

signal, suppressing the carrier and leaving only the sum
and difference frequencies at the output.

• The output of a balanced modulator can be further processed

by filters or phase-shifting circuitry to eliminate one of the
sidebands, resulting in a SSB signal.

• Types of balanced modulators include lattice, 1496/1596 IC,

and the analog multiplier.
 Balanced Modulator

Sm(t) S1(t)
AM Modulator 1

Accos(wct)
Sm(t)
S(t)
Carrier

DSB-SC
Accos(wct)

AM Modulator 2
-Sm(t) S2(t)
The two modulators are identical except for the sign reversal
of the input to one of them. Thus,
TDR of DSB-SC
DSB-SC signal
FDR (Spectrum ) of DSB-SC
Balanced modulator using FETs
 Balanced modulator using FETs
• Carrier is applied to T2 which is connected to center tap of T1
and T3
• Carrier is applied to two gates in phase and modulating
voltage appears at 180o out phase at gate.
• In absence of modulating signal, FET current due to carrier are
opposite and equal in amplitude, resulting in cancelling each
other.
• On applying modulating signal, Carrier current are equal and
opposite hence cancel each other, but current due to
modulating signal is equal in both FET but not opposite. The
resultant output is obtained at output.
• Output is equivalent to suppressed Carrier with two
sidebands.
 Balanced modulator: Ring/Lattice
• Widely used balanced modulators is the diode ring or lattice modulator in,
consisting of an input transformer T1, an output transformer T2, and four
diodes connected in a bridge circuit.
• The carrier signal is applied to the center taps of the input and output
transformers, and the modulating signal is applied to the input
transformer T1. The output appears across the secondary of the output
transformer T2.
 Balanced modulator: Ring/Lattice
• Assume that the modulating input is zero. When the polarity of the carrier
is positive, diodes D1 and D2 are forward-biased. At this time, D3 and D4
are reverse-biased and act as open circuits.
• current divides equally in the upper and lower portions of the primary
winding of T2. The current in the upper part of the winding produces a
magnetic field that is equal and opposite to the magnetic field produced
by the current in the lower half of the secondary. The magnetic fields thus
cancel each other out. No output is induced in the secondary, and the
carrier is effectively suppressed.
 Balanced modulator: Ring/Lattice
• When the polarity of the carrier reverses, diodes D1 and D2 are reverse-
biased and diodes D3 and D4 conduct. Again, the current flows in the
secondary winding of T1 and the primary winding of T2. The equal and
opposite magnetic fields produced in T2 cancel each other out. The carrier
is effectively balanced out, and its output is zero
• A low-frequency sine wave is applied to the primary of T1 as the
modulating signal. The modulating signal appears across the secondary of
T1. The diode switches connect the secondary of T1 to the primary of T2
at different times depending upon the carrier polarity
 Balanced modulator: Ring/Lattice
• When Carrier polarity is Positive, D1 and D2 conducts and when polarity is
negative D3 and D4 conducts.
• A portion of the modulating signal at the secondary of T1 is applied to the
primary of T2, but this time the leads have been effectively reversed
because of the connections of D3 and D4. The result is a 180° phase
reversal. With this connection, if the modulating signal is positive, the
output will be negative, and vice versa.
 Nonlinear Modulator..

z(t)  y (t)  y (t)  [bx (t)  cx 2 (t)] [bx (t)  cx 2 (t)]

1 2 1 1 2 2

By substituting the two inputs

x1 (t)  cosct  m(t),

x2 (t)  cosct  m(t)

z(t)  2b m(t)  4c m(t) cosct

After passing through BPF the output contains only one term with two
sidebands so called as single balanced modulator.
 DSB-SC Analysis

• All the transmitted power is contained in the two sidebands

(no carrier present).

• The bandwidth is twice the modulating signal bandwidth.

• USB displays the positive components of m(t) and LSB

displays the negative components of m(t).
 DSBSC- Demodulators
• The process of extracting an original message signal from
DSBSC wave is known as detection or demodulation of DSBSC.
The following demodulators (detectors) are used for
demodulating DSBSC wave.
• Coherent Detector
• Costas Loop
• Coherent Detection
 DSBSC- Demodulators

Where, ϕ is the phase difference between the local oscillator signal and the
carrier signal, which is used for DSBSC modulation.
 Single-Side Band (SSB) Modulation

• DSBSC (as well as AM) occupies double the bandwidth of

the baseband signal, although the two sides carry the same
information.

• Why not send only one side, the upper or the lower?

• Modulation: similar to DSBSC. Only change the settings of

the BPF (center frequency, bandwidth).

• Demodulation: similar to DSBSC (coherent)

 Single-Sideband Modulation

How to generate SSB signal?

• Generate DSB-SC signal
• Band-pass filter to pass only one of the sideband and
suppress the other.

For the generation of an SSB modulated signal to be possible,

the message spectrum must have an energy gap centered at
the origin.
 SSB Modulation
The two sidebands of an AM signal are mirror images of
each other.

One of the sidebands is redundant

Using single-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission

results in reduced bandwidth and therefore twice as many
signals may be transmitted in the same spectrum allotment

Typically,a 3dB improvement in signal-to-noise ratio is

achieved as a result of SSB-SC
 SSB spectrum

Frequency spectrum:

fc-fm fc+fm
fc

Bandwidth = fm(max) Total

Power = +PUSB
 Methods of Generating SSB

•Selective Filtering method

• A filter removes the undesired sideband producing
SSB.
• Balanced modulators is used to suppress the unwanted
carrier and filters to suppress the unwanted sidebands
• Quartz crystal filters are the most widely used sideband
filters since they are very selective and inexpensive.
 Methods of Generating SSB

• Methods of generation of Single Sideband modulated wave

1. Frequency discrimination method (Filter method)
2. Phase shift method
Frequency discrimination method/ Filtering method
• Advantages of Filter method:
1.It provides sufficiently flat and wide bandwidth.
2.By this method, we can have suitable
sideband suppression.
• Disadvantages of Filter method:
1.Frequency up-conversion at the end is
necessary as the system does not generate
SSB at high frequencies.
2.Expensive filter increases the overall cost of
the system.
 Phase Shift method of SSB

This method avoids filters and their disadvantages.

• It makes use of two Balanced Modulators and two phase
shifters.
• One of the BM receives 90° phase shifted carrier and in
phase message signal
• Other BM receives 90° phase shifted message and in
phase carrier signal.
• Both BM produce sidebands only.
• USB of both BMs will be in phase and LSB will be out of phase.
• Adding the two DSB signals together results in one sideband
being cancelled out.
Phase Shift method of SSB (Upper)
Phase Shift method of SSB (Lower)
Add s1(t) and s2(t)in order to get the SSBSC modulated wave s(t)  having a
lower sideband.
Subtract s2(t)  from s1(t)  in order to get the SSBSC modulated wave s(t)
 having an upper sideband.
 SSB Demodulator / Detection
The process of extracting an original message signal from SSBSC wave is
known as detection or demodulation of SSBSC. Coherent detector is used for
demodulating SSBSC wave.
• Advantages of Phase shift method:
1.It does not require a frequency up-
conversion stage.
2.The modulating signal can be a low-
frequency audio signal.
3.Switching between the sidebands is
easier.
• Disadvantages of Phase shift method:
1.The designing of phase shifting circuitry is
complex.
2.It requires phase shifting to be accurate,
which is a difficult task.
• Advantages of SSB modulation
1.It allows multiple signals to transmit.
2.SSB technique requires less bandwidth as compared to
DSB technique.
3.Less power is consumed.
4.It allows transmission of the high power signal.
5.It provides less interference to noise due to the
reduction in bandwidth.
• Disadvantages of SSB modulation
1.Implementation of SSB holds complex nature.
2.It is expensive.
3.SSB technique requires a transmitter and receiver to be
highly frequency stable. As some slight change in
frequency will deteriorate the quality of the signal.
• Applications of SSB modulation
• It is needed in all such applications where
power saving and low bandwidth is required.
• The technique is utilized in point to point
communication.
• It is also used in land and air mobile
communication.
• It also finds its applications in telemetry and
radar communication.
FDR (Spectrum) of SSB
Time domain Representation of SSB wave
Comparison of time domain representation of
three common AM transmissions
Comparison of time domain representation
of three common AM transmissions
 Examples

For an AMDSBFC wave with a peak unmodulated

carrier voltage Vc = 10 Vp, frequency of 100kHz, a load resistor of
RL
= 10 , frequency of modulating signal of 10kHz and m = 1,
determine the following

i) Powers of the carrier and the upper and lower sidebands.

ii) Total power of the modulated wave.

iii) Bandwidth of the transmitted wave.

iv) Draw the power and frequency spectrum.

 Examples..cont’d

• For the same given values, determine questions (ii)-

(iv) for a AM DSB-SC, AM SSB-FC andAM SSB-
SC systems, determine also the percentage of power
saved in each of the system design.
 Vestigial Side Band (VSB)

 SSBSC modulation and demodulation. SSBSC modulated

signal has only one sideband frequency. 
 Theoretically, we can get one sideband frequency component
completely by using an ideal band pass filter. However,
practically we may not get the entire sideband frequency
component. Due to this, some information gets lost.
 To avoid this loss, a technique is chosen, which is a
compromise between DSBSC and SSBSC. This technique is
known as Vestigial Side Band Suppressed Carrier
(VSBSC) technique. The word “vestige” means “a part”
from which, the name is derived.
 Vestigial Side Band (VSB)

• VSBSC Modulation is the process, where a part of the signal

called as vestige is modulated along with one sideband. The
frequency spectrum of VSBSC wave is shown in the following
figure.
 Vestigial Side Band (VSB)
• Along with the upper sideband, a part of the lower sideband is
also being transmitted in this technique. Similarly, we can
transmit the lower sideband along with a part of the upper
sideband.
• A guard band of very small width is laid on either side of VSB
in order to avoid the interferences.
• VSB modulation is mostly used in television transmissions.
 Vestigial Side Band (VSB)
• Along with the upper sideband, a part of the lower sideband is
also being transmitted in this technique. Similarly, we can
transmit the lower sideband along with a part of the upper
sideband.
• A guard band of very small width is laid on either side of VSB
in order to avoid the interferences.
• VSB modulation is mostly used in television transmissions.
 Vestigial Side Band (VSB)

 In the video signal, very low frequency modulating components exist

along with rest of the signal
 These components give rise to sidebands very close to the carrier
frequency – difficult to remove by physically realizable filters
 The low video frequencies contain the most important information of
the picture
 Complete suppression of the lower sideband would result in phase
distortion at these frequencies
 one complete sideband can not be fully suppressed
 As a compromise only a part of the LSB is suppressed
 Radiated signal consist of :
•Full USB + Carrier + Vestige of the partially suppressed LSB
 Bandwidth Calculation in VSB
 Frequencies up to 0.75 MHz of the LSB are fully radiated
 Attenuation slope of 0.5 MHz at either end
 FM sound signal occupies a frequency spectrum of about ±75
KHz around the sound carrier
 Guard band of 0.25 MHz – allowed on the sound carrier side – for
interchannel separation
 VSB Generation

x(t) DSBSC
Product Side Band VSB

Modulator Shaping Filter

Carrier

S(f) = Ac/2 [ M ( f – fc ) + M ( f + fc) ] H(f)

• Therefore, the output of the product modulator is

• Apply Fourier transform on both sides

• Let the transfer function of the sideband shaping filter be H(f)

• The filter has input p(t) and the output is VSBSC modulated
wave s(t)
• After fourier transform
S(f)= P(F).H(f)
 VSB Detection
• Demodulation of VSBSC wave is similar to the demodulation
of SSBSC wave. Here, the same carrier signal (which is used
for generating VSBSC wave) is used to detect the message
signal. Hence, this process of detection is called
as coherent or synchronous detection. The VSBSC
demodulator is shown in the following figure.
• Advantages of VSB
• Following are the advantages of VSBSC modulation.
• Highly efficient.
• Reduction in bandwidth when compared to AM and
DSBSC waves.
• Filter design is easy, since high accuracy is not needed.
• The transmission of low frequency components is possible,
without any difficulty.
• Possesses good phase characteristics.
• Disadvantages of VSB
• Following are the disadvantages of VSBSC modulation.
• Bandwidth is more when compared to SSBSC wave.
• Demodulation is complex.
• Applications of VSB
• The most prominent and standard application of
VSBSC is for the transmission of television
signals. Also, this is the most convenient and
efficient technique when bandwidth usage is
considered.
• Now, let us discuss about the modulator which
generates VSBSC wave and the demodulator
which demodulates VSBSC wave one by one.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of VSB

• Advantages
• Relatively easy to generate.
• Less bandwidth as compared to DSBSC

• Disadvantages of VSB
• Small power is wasted in VSB filter.
• Some phase and amplitude distortion still occurs
• Needs careful design of VSB filter.
• Critical tuning at the receiver
Comparison of FDR of Amplitude
Modulation methods

M(w)

DSBSC

SSB

VSB
 Independent Side Band (ISB) Modulation

• Satisfies the need of multiplex techniques for high

density point- to- point communication

• Two sidebands independent of each other with reduced

carrier.

• It can simultaneously convey totally different data to

different users.
 ISB Driver System
Input 1

Channel A

3-MHz
Balanced USB Crystal
Modulator filter oscillator

100 kHz crystal 26-dB Balanced

Carrier Adder
oscillator Mixer
attenuator

3.1-MHz
Balanced
LSB filter Amplifier
Modulator
and filter

Channel B
To the ISB transmitter

Input 2
 ISB spectrum

Reduced Carrier
26-dB

LSB USB

Independent information sidebands

 Comparison of Amplitude Modulation
methods

Full AM (or DSB-LC)

- Sidebands are transmitted in full with the carrier.

- Simple to demodulate / detect
- Poor power efficiency
- Wide bandwidth ( twice the bandwidth of the information
signal)
- Used in commercial AM radio broadcasting, one transmitter
and many receivers.
 Comparison of Amplitude Modulation
methods

DSB-SC
- Less transmitted power than full AM and all the transmitted
power is useful.
- Requires a coherent carrier at the receiver; This results in
increased complexity in the detector(i.e. synchronizer)
- Suited for point to point communication involving one
transmitter and one receiver which would justify the use of
increased receiver complexity.
 Comparison of Amplitude Modulation
methods

SSB
- Good bandwidth utilization (message signal bandwidth =
modulated signal bandwidth)
- Good power efficiency
- Demodulation is harder as compares to full AM; Exact filter
design and coherent demodulation are required
- Preferred in long distance transmission of voice signals
 Comparison of Amplitude Modulation
methods

VSB
- Offers a compromise between SSB and DSB-SC
- VSB is standard for transmission of TV and similar signals
- Bandwidth saving can be significant if modulating signals are
of large bandwidth as in TV and wide band data signals.
• For example with TV the bandwidth of the modulating signal
can extend up to 5.5MHz; with full AM the bandwidth required
is 11MHz
Amplitude Modulation
(AM) Receivers
 Am Receivers
• Radio receiver is an electronic equipment which pick ups the
desired signal, reject the unwanted signal and demodulate
the carrier signal to get back the original modulating signal.
• Radio receivers are classified according to the type of traffic
they are designed to handle.
– A.M. broadcast receivers
– F.M. broadcast receivers
– T.V. receivers
– Radar receivers
 Characteristics Am Receivers

• Sensitivity
• Selectivity
• Fidelity

• Selectivity:-
• Radio receiver should have good selectivity and selectivity of
radio receiver is its ability to differentiate desired signal from
unwanted signals.
 Characteristics Am Receivers
• Selectivity
• Selectivity is obtained by using tuned circuits, which are tuned to
desired frequency. The quality factor of these LC circuits determines
the selectivity. It is given by,
• Q=XL/R
• For better selectivity ‘Q’ should be high.

• Sensitivity:-
• Ability to pick up and amplify weak signals. Broadcast receivers/
radio receivers should have reasonably high sensitivity so that it may
have good response to the desired signal but should not have
excessively high sensitivity otherwise it will pick up all undesired
noise signals. It is function of receiver gain and measures in decibels.
 Characteristics Am Receivers
• Fidelity:-
• Ability to reproduce all the modulating frequencies equally
• radio receiver should have high fidelity or accuracy.
• it is determined by the high frequency response. Therefore it
should have high frequency response over entire audio
frequency range. It is also determined by low frequency of IF
• Ex. In an A.M. broadcast the maximum audio frequency is 5
KHz hence receiver with good fidelity must produce entire
frequency up to 5KHz.
 TRF (Tuned Radio frequency) receiver
• TRF receivers are simple to design and allow the broadcast
frequency 535 KHz to 1640 KHz. But at the higher frequency,
it produces difficulty in design.
• It has poor audio quality.
• Simplest/Oldest AM receiver
• Consists of: –
• RF Amplifier: Tuned to RF of desired freq
– Amplifies weak signal from antenna
– Low noise characteristics
– Tuned to carrier and sideband frequencies
• Detector: extracts the intelligence from the AM signal
• Audio Amplifier: provides sufficient power to drive
loudspeaker
 Super – Heterodyne Receiver

(fs) [fo - fs]

Audio and
IF
RF stage Mixer Detector power
amplifier
amplifier

AFC
Local AGC
Oscillator
(fo)
The super-heterodyne receiver
Ganged Tuning was invented in 1918 by Edwin H.
Armstrong and is still almost
universally used
 Super – Heterodyne Receiver

• A conventional receiver converts the modulated waveform

back to the original source by receiving, amplifying and
demodulating the wave.

• The receiver also functioning to bandlimit the total RF

spectrum to a specific desired band of frequency – tuning the
receiver
 Super
Super––heterodyne Receiver
Heterodyne Receiver

• Heterodyne – to mix two frequencies together in a nonlinear

device or to transmit one frequency to another using
nonlinear mixing.

• Also known as frequency conversion, high frequency down

converted to low frequency.(IF)

• A super heterodyne receiver converts all incoming radio

frequency (RF) signals to a lower frequency known as an
intermediate frequency (IF).
 Super
Super – –heterodyne
Heterodyne Receiver
Receiver

• A SH radio receiver consists of the following:

– A Radio Frequency (RF) section
– An RF-to-IF converter (mixer)
– An Intermediate Frequency (IF) section
– Demodulator
– Audio amplifier
 Super – Heterodyne Receiver
• RF section (Receiver front end)
– used to detect, bandlimit and amplifying the received RF signal.
• Mixer/converter
– Down-converts the received RF frequencies to intermediate frequencies
(IF).
– Intermediate frequencies are the frequencies that fall somewhere between
the RF and the information frequencies.
• IF section
– Used for amplification and selectivity.
• Detector
– Demodulates the modulated wave and converts it to the original
information signal.
• Audio section
– Used to amplify the recovered signal
 Super – Heterodyne Receiver

• AM and FM have different radio frequency (RF) spectrum

ranges:
– AM: 540 kHz – 1600 kHz
– FM: 88 MHz – 108 MHz

• Therefore, the two IF frequencies are:

– AM: 455 kHz
– FM: 10.7 MHz
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