CHEMICAL BONDING, STRUCTURE AND SHAPES OF

MOLECULES AND COMPOUNDS

Valence electrons
 Valence is the number of electrons an atom must lose or gain to attain the nearest noble gas or inert
gas electronic configuration. “Electrons in the outer shells that are not filled are called valence
electrons”.

 The valence electrons are part of the chemical reactions because they contain more energy compared
to the electrons present in inner orbits. Meanwhile, the number of valence electrons present also
helps us determine a specific element’s chemical properties, such as its valence or valency, the
formation of bonds with other elements. It also gives us an idea of how readily the atoms can form
bonds, the number of unpaired electrons and how many atoms can take part.

 Valence electrons are all arranged in different orbitals or shells and are mostly negatively charged
particles. Further, these electrons are responsible for interaction between atoms and the formation of
chemical bonds. However, not all electrons are associated with the atom. Only the electrons present in
the outermost shell can participate in the formation of a chemical bond or a molecule. Such type of
electrons is called valence electrons.
25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 1
Characteristics of Valence
Electron
Electrons are involved in the chemical bonding and reactions of the atom. It is said to occupy orbitals in an
atom. The number of valence electrons of an atom can be obtained from the periodic table because it is equal
to the group number of the atom. Atoms are most stable if they have a filled valence shell of electrons. Atoms
transfer or share electrons in such a way that they can attain a filled shell of electrons. Some key
characteristics of a valence electron are;

 For the main group elements, the valence electron exists only in the outermost electron shell

 A valence electron can exist in the inner shell of a transition metal

 An atom consisting of a closed shell of valence electrons will usually be chemically inert

 A valence electron can either absorb or release energy in the form of a photon

 Valence electrons also determine the electrical conductivity of an element. Depending on the nature of
elements can be metal, non-metal, or metalloid.

 Valency is the combining power of an element.

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 2
Determination of Valence
Electrons
 One of the easiest ways to find valence
electrons is by checking out the elements’ place
in the periodic table. The valence electrons of
an element can be found by closely examining
the vertical column in which the elements are
grouped. By looking at the group number that is
given we can identify the number of valence
electrons that an element which is listed under
that specific column has.
 Another way to find or determine valence
electrons is by knowing the electronic
configuration.

 However, if we take the transition metals

(groups 3-12), finding the valence electron is
quite complicated. These elements’ atomic
structure is rigid and the d subshell is
incomplete and sits lower than the outer shell.

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 3

Determination of Valence
Electrons
Periodic Table Group Valence Electrons
Alkali metals – Group 1 (I) 1

Alkaline earth metals – Group 2 (II) 2

Boron group – Group 13 (III) 3

Carbon group – Group 14 (IV) 4
Nitrogen group – Group 15 (V) 5
Oxygen group – Group 16 (VI) 6
Halogens – Group 17 (VII) 7

Noble gases – Group 18 (VIII or 0) 8

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 4

Chemical bonding
 Chemical Bonding refers to the formation of a chemical bond between two or more atoms, molecules, or
ions to give rise to a chemical compound. These chemical bonds are what keep the atoms together in the
resulting molecule or compound.
 The attractive force which holds various constituents (atom, ions, etc.) together and stabilizes them by the
overall loss of energy is known as chemical bonding. Therefore, it can be understood that chemical
compounds are reliant on the strength of the chemical bonds between its constituents; The stronger the
bonding between the constituents, the more stable the resulting compound would be.

 The opposite also holds true; if the chemical bonding between the constituents is weak, the resulting
compound would lack stability and would easily undergo another reaction to give a more stable chemical
compound (containing stronger bonds). To find stability, the atoms try to lose their energy.

 Whenever matter interacts with another form of matter, a force is exerted on one by the other. When the
forces are attractive in nature, the energy decreases. When the forces are repulsive in nature, the energy
increases. The attractive force that binds two atoms together is known as the chemical bond.

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 5

Lewis Theory of Chemical
Bonding
 An atom can be viewed as a positively charged ‘Kernel’ (the nucleus plus the inner electrons)
and the outer shell.
 The outer shell can accommodate a maximum of eight electrons only.
 The eight electrons present in the outer shell occupy the corners of a cube which surround
the ‘Kernel’.
 The atoms having octet configuration, i.e. 8 electrons in the outermost shell, thus symbolize
a stable configuration.
 Atoms can achieve this stable configuration by forming chemical bonds with other atoms.
This chemical bond can be formed either by gaining or losing an electron(s) (NaCl, MgCl2) or
in some cases due to the sharing of an electron (F2).
 Only the electrons present in the outer shell, also known as the valence electrons take part in
the formation of chemical bonds. Gilbert Lewis used specific notations better known as Lewis
symbols to represent these valence electrons.
 Generally, the valency of an element is either equal to the number of dots in the
corresponding Lewis symbol or 8 minus the number of dots (or valence electrons).

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 6

Types of Chemical Bonds

 When substances participate in chemical bonding and yield compounds, the stability of the
resulting compound can be gauged by the type of chemical bonds it contains.

 The type of chemical bonds formed vary in strength and properties.

 There are 4 primary types of chemical bonds which are formed by atoms or molecules to form
compounds. These types of chemical bonds include:

1. Ionic Bonds
2. Covalent Bonds
3. Hydrogen Bonds
4. Polar Bonds

 These types of bonds in chemical bonding are formed from the loss, gain, or sharing of electrons
between two atoms/molecules.

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 7

Electropositive and electronegative
elements
Electropositive elements
 Electropositive means chemical elements tend to lose electrons. Losing electrons forms
cations or positively charged ions in chemical reactions. It is a measure of an element’s
ability to donate electrons.

 Elements tend to lose their electrons to gain a noble gas electron configuration.

 Usually, all metals are considered as electropositive chemical elements because they
have easily removable electrons in their outermost orbitals. Among them, the alkali
metals (group 1 chemical elements) are the most electropositive elements.

 Theoretically, Francium is the most electropositive chemical element, though it is

unstable in nature. Although hydrogen is in the group1 of the periodic table, it can either
lose or gain electrons; therefore, we can categorize it under both electropositive and
electronegative elements.

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 8

Electronegative elements? Electron affinity
Electronegative refers to the ability of a chemical It is the amount of energy released when an
element to gain electrons. electron is added to a neutral atom in the
gaseous state to form an anion.
The gaining of electrons from the outside forms
anions; anions are the negatively charged chemical Electron affinity is influenced by:
species. Electronegativity is the opposite of
electropositivity. 1. Atomic size: If the atomic size is small, then
there will be greater electron gain enthalpy
Electronegativity refer to the attraction of either a because the effective nuclear forces will be
shared pair of electrons or an electron density greater in the smaller atoms and the electrons
towards itself. will be held firmly.

2. Nuclear charge: The greater the nuclear

charge, more will be the value of electron gain
enthalpy because  increase in nuclear change
increase nuclear force on valence electrons.
25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 9
Electron Affinity of Halogens
Ionization potential or ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom. Energy is
supplied for removing an electron implies that energy will be released if an extra electron is added to the atom. The amount
of energy released when a neutral atom in its gaseous state accepts an electron and gets converted into a negatively
charged ion is known as electron affinity.

X(g) + e− → X− (g) + E.A.

Here X is any element in the gaseous state and E.A. is the electron affinity. The unit of electron affinity is electron volts per
atom or kilojoule per mole. It is represented by a negative sign [-] for example,

Cl (g) + e−→Cl− (g) + 349 KJ/mol

Therefore, the electron affinity of chlorine is – 349 KJ/mol.

Energy is released when the first electron is added to an atom and monovalent anion is formed and this is known as the first
electron affinity. Now if we add another electron to this anion, a force of repulsion is experienced by the electron and
energy is absorbed. Therefore, the second electron affinity and further affinities are positive in nature.

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 10

Factors Governing Ionization
Energy
Normally, when the ionization energy is high it will be more difficult to remove an electron.
There are also several factors that govern the attraction forces.

1. If the nucleus is positively charged then the electrons are strongly attracted to it.

2. If an electron lies near or close to the nucleus then the attraction will be greater than the
one when the electron is further away.

3. If there are more electrons between the outer level and the nucleus the attraction forces
are less.

4. When there are two electrons in the same orbital they experience some form of
repulsion. Now, this creates disturbances in the attraction of the nucleus. In essence,
ionization energy will be less in paired electrons as they can be removed easily.

Note that for metals: Fist ionization is always lower than second ionization energy

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 11

Ionic Bonding
 Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bonding which A primary drive for atomic interactions
involves a transfer of electrons from one atom or leading to “bonding” is the achievement of
molecule to another. Here, an atom loses an valence shell octets which exhibit a high
electron which is in turn gained by another atom. degree of stability. If atoms on the left and
right side of the Periodic Table interact, i.e.
 When such an electron transfer takes place, one of atoms with a large difference in electron
the atoms develops a negative charge and is now affinity (ΔE.A.), stabilization is achieved by
called the anion. electron octet formation through charge
transfer. The reaction products exhibit
 The other atom develops a positive charge and is opposite charges ( + cations, - anions) and
called the cation. are subject to Coulombic attraction – ionic
bonds are formed. Since the electrostatic
 The ionic bond gains strength from the difference forces are non-directional and non-saturated,
in charge between the two atoms, i.e. the greater energy minimization will result in the
the charge disparity between the cation and the formation of macroscopic bodies that are
anion, the stronger the ionic bond. highly ordered on the atomic scale, crystalline
ionic solids.
25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 12
Ionic Compound
 An ionic bond is formed when one or more electrons is wholly transferred
from one element to another, and the elements are held together by the
force of attraction due to the opposing charges.
 The sodium atom loses the one electron in its outer shell to the chlorine
atom, which uses the electron to fill its outer shell. When this occurs, the
sodium atom is left with a +1 charge and the chlorine atom a -1 charge. The
ionic bond is formed as a result of the attraction of the two oppositely-
charged particles. No single negatively-charged ion has a greater tendency
to bond to a particular positively-charged ion than to any other ion.
 Because of this, the positive and negative ions arrange themselves in three
dimensions to balance the charges among several ions.
 In sodium chloride, for example, each chloride ion is surrounded by as many
sodium ions as can easily crowd around it, namely six. Similarly, each sodium
ion is surrounded by six chloride ions. Therefore, each chloride ion is bonded
to the six nearest sodium ions and bonded to a lesser extent to the more
distant sodium ions. Accordingly, the ionic bond is a force holding many atoms
or ions together rather than a bond between two individual atoms or ions.
25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 13
Properties of Ionic Compounds
1. Physical properties of ionic compounds
Due to the presence of the strong force of attraction between the positive and negative ions, ionic
compounds are solids and are hard to break. They generally break into pieces when pressure is
applied, hence they are considered brittle.
2. Melting and boiling points of ionic compounds
Due to the presence of electrostatic forces of attraction between ions, a large amount of energy is
required to break the ionic bonds between the atoms. Thus, ionic compounds have high melting
and boiling points.
3. The solubility of ionic compounds
Ionic compounds are generally soluble in polar solvents such as water whereas solubility tends to
decrease in non-polar solvents such as petrol, gasoline, etc.
4. Conduction of Electricity
Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in the solid-state but are good conductors in a molten
state. Conduction of electricity involves the flow of charge from one point to another. In the solid-
state, as the movement of ions is not possible, ionic compounds don’t conduct electricity. Whereas
in the molten state, ionic compounds conduct electricity as electrostatic forces of attraction
between the ions are overcome by the heat released.

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 14

Properties of Ionic Compounds

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 15

Lattice Energy
 Ionic compounds occupy a lattice structure, held together by electrostatic forces between cations and anions.
Dissolution of ionic compounds requires energy equal to the lattice energy. Lattice energy indicates bond strength of an
ionic compound. It is defined as the energy released through the formation of an ionic compound from its constituent
ions.
 For example, the formation of sodium chloride from sodium and chlorine ions releases 787 kilojoules of energy for every
mole of sodium chloride. 

 Lattice energy of magnesium oxide is greater than that of sodium fluoride because magnesium and oxygen ions have
greater charge.

 Lattice energy is dependent on two main factors:

 Radius of ions. Larger the ions, lower the lattice energy. For example, KCl has lower lattice energy than NaCl because
potassium ion is larger than sodium ion in terms of ionic radius.
 Charge of ions. Greater the charge, higher the lattice energy. For example, MgCl 2 has greater lattice energy than NaCl
because magnesium ion has a +2 charge while sodium ion has a +1 charge.
25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 16
Solvation of Ionic Compounds
 Solvation is the interaction of a solvent with the dissolved solute—in
the case of water, solvation is often referred to as hydration. Solvent
polarity is the most important factor in determining how well it
solvates a particular solute. Polar solvents have molecular dipoles,
meaning that part of the solvent molecule has more electron
density than another part of the molecule. The part with more
electron density will experience a partial negative charge while the
part with less electron density will experience a partial positive
charge. Polar solvent molecules can solvate polar solutes and ions
because they can orient the appropriate partially charged portion of
the molecule towards the solute through electrostatic attraction.
This stabilizes the system and creates a solvation shell (or hydration
shell in the case of water) around each particle of solute.
 In the solvation process, ionized and uncharged molecules interact
strongly with solvent, and the strength and nature of this
interaction influences many properties of the solute, including
solubility, reactivity, and color, as well as influencing the properties
of the solvent such as the viscosity and density. Solvation involves
bond formation, hydrogen bonding, and van der Waals forces. Thus
solvation is an interaction of a solute with the solvent which leads to
stabilization of the solute species in the solution. Solvation is, in
concept, distinct from solubility.
25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 17
Oxidation number
 Oxidation number in simple terms can be described as the number that
is allocated to elements in a chemical combination. The oxidation
number is basically the count of electrons that atoms in a molecule can
share, lose or gain while forming chemical bonds with other atoms of a
different element.

 Oxidation number is also referred to as oxidation state. However,

sometimes these terms can have a different meaning depending on
whether we are considering the electronegativity of the atoms or not.
The oxidation number term is used frequently in coordination
chemistry.

 The oxidation number/state is also used to determine the changes

that occur in redox reactions. Meanwhile, it is quite similar to valence
electrons.

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 18

Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers
Oxidation numbers are real or hypothetical charges on atoms, assigned by the
following rules:

1. Atoms in elements are assigned 0.

2. All simple monatomic ions have oxidation numbers equal to their charges. (e.g.,
all Group IA ions are +1; all group IIA ions are +2; all the following ions have
oxidation numbers given by their charges - Fe2+, Al3+ , S2-, N3-)
3. Fluorine is always -1 in its compounds.
4. Halogens are usually -1, except when a central atom or when combined with a
more electronegative element (e.g., assign I as -1 in NI 3 , but +3 in ICl3 ).
5. Oxygen is -2 in most of its compounds, except in cases like peroxides (H 2O2 ,
Na2O2 ) where it is -1.
6. Hydrogen is usually +1, except in hydrides with electropositive elements,
particularly with metal cations, where it is -1 (e.g., NaH, CaH2 , BH4- ).
7. The sum of all oxidation numbers for a neutral compound is zero; the sum is the
charge on the species for a complex ion.

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 19

Metallic bonding
In metallic bonding, each atom in the metal contributes its valence
electrons to the formation of an electron cloud that surrounds the
positively charged metal ions, as illustrated in the diagram. Hence,
the valence electrons are shared by all of the atoms. The positively
charged ions repel each other uniformly, so they arrange
themselves into a regular pattern that is held together by the
negatively charged electron cloud. Since the negative electron
cloud surrounds each of the positive ions that make up the orderly
three dimensional crystal structure, strong electronic attraction
holds the metal together.

Metallic bonding simply refers to The electron sea model proposes

electrostatic forces of attraction that all metal atoms contribute
between positive metal ions and their valence electrons to form a
negative electrons. “sea” of electrons. Metals owe
their physical properties to their
delocalized electrons.
25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 20
Properties of metals
1. Electrical Conductivity: Electrical conductivity is a measure of
the ability of a substance to allow a charge to move through it.
Since the movement of electrons is not restricted in the electron
sea, any electric current passed through the metal passes through
it. When a potential difference is introduced to the metal, the
delocalized electrons start moving towards the positive charge.
This is the reason why metals are generally good conductors of
electric current.

2. Thermal Conductivity: The thermal conductivity of a material is

a measure of its ability to conduct/transfer heat. When one end of
a metallic substance is heated, the kinetic energy of the electrons
in that area increases. These electrons transfer their kinetic
energies to other electrons in the sea via collisions. The greater the
mobility of the electrons, the quicker the transfer of kinetic energy.
Due to metallic bonds, the delocalized electrons are highly mobile,
and they transfer the heat through the metallic substance by
colliding with other electrons.
25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 21
Properties of metals
3. Malleability and Ductility: When an ionic crystal (such as sodium chloride crystal) is beaten with a hammer, it shatters
into many smaller pieces. This is because the atoms in the crystals are held together in a rigid lattice that is not easily
deformed. The introduction of a force (from the hammer) causes the crystal structure to fracture, resulting in the
shattering of the crystal. In the case of metals, the sea of electrons in the metallic bond enables the deformation of the
lattice. Therefore, when metals are beaten with a hammer, the rigid lattice is deformed and not fractured. This is why
metals can be beaten into thin sheets. Since these lattices do not fracture easily, metals are said to be highly ductile.

Malleability means not easy to deform

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 22

Properties of metals
4. Metallic Luster: When light is incident on a metallic
surface, the energy of the photon is absorbed by the sea of
electrons that constitute the metallic bond. The absorption of
energy excites the electrons, increasing their energy levels.
These excited electrons quickly return to their ground states,
emitting light in the process. This emission of light due to the
de-excitation of electrons attributes a shiny metallic lustre to
the metal.

5. High Melting and Boiling Points: As a result of powerful

metallic bonding, the attractive force between the metal atoms
is quite strong. In order to overcome this force of attraction, a
great deal of energy is required. This is the reason why metals
tend to have high melting and boiling points. The exceptions to
this include zinc, cadmium, and mercury (explained by their
electron configurations, which end with ns2). The metallic bond
can retain its strength even when the metal is in its melt state.
For example, gallium melts at 29.76oC but boils only at 2400oC.
Therefore, molten gallium is a non volatile liquid.
25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 23
Covalent Bonding
Atoms can also make chemical bonds by sharing electrons equally between each other. Such bonds are called
covalent bonds. Covalent bonds are formed between two atoms when both have similar tendencies to attract
electrons to themselves (i.e., when both atoms have identical or fairly similar ionization energies and electron
affinities). For example, two hydrogen atoms bond covalently to form an H2 molecule; each hydrogen atom in
the H2 molecule has two electrons stabilizing it, giving each atom the same number of valence electrons as the
noble gas He.
If the atoms that form a covalent bond are identical, as in H2, Cl2, and other diatomic molecules, then the
electrons in the bond must be shared equally. We refer to this as a pure covalent bond.

In the case of Cl2, each atom starts off with seven valence electrons, and each Cl shares one electron with the
other, forming one covalent bond:

Cl + Cl ⟶ Cl2

The total number of electrons around each individual atom consists of six nonbonding electrons and two
shared (i.e., bonding) electrons for eight total electrons, matching the number of valence electrons in the
noble gas argon. Since the bonding atoms are identical, Cl2 also features a pure covalent bond.
25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 24
Characteristic properties of Covalent Compounds
 The covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points due to
weak forces of interaction between the molecules.

 The covalent compounds are poor conductors of electricity as these

lack ionic species.

 The covalent compounds are generally insoluble in water and

dissolve in nonpolar solvents like benzene, carbon tetrachloride etc.

Covalent vs. ionic compounds. Compounds that contain covalent bonds exhibit different physical
properties than ionic compounds. Because the attraction between molecules, which are electrically
neutral, is weaker than that between electrically charged ions, covalent compounds generally have
much lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds. In fact, many covalent compounds are
liquids or gases at room temperature, and, in their solid states, they are typically much softer than
ionic solids. Furthermore, whereas ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity when dissolved
in water, most covalent compounds are insoluble in water; since they are electrically neutral, they are
poor conductors of electricity in any state.

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 25

Chemical bonding in the H2 molecule

Starting on the far right, we have two separate hydrogen

atoms with a particular potential energy, indicated by the
red line. Along the x-axis is the distance between the two
atoms. As the two atoms approach each other (moving
left along the x-axis), their valence orbitals (1s) begin to
overlap. The single electrons on each hydrogen atom then
interact with both atomic nuclei, occupying the space
around both atoms. The strong attraction of each shared
electron to both nuclei stabilizes the system, and the
potential energy decreases as the bond distance decreases.
If the atoms continue to approach each other, the positive
charges in the two nuclei begin to repel each other, and the
potential energy increases. The bond length is determined
by the distance at which the lowest potential energy is
achieved.

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 26

Polar covalent bond
 When the atoms linked by a covalent bond are different, the bonding electrons are shared, but no longer equally.
 Instead, the bonding electrons are more attracted to one atom than the other, giving rise to a shift of electron
density toward that atom.

 Polar covalent bond is characterized by a partial positive charge on one atom and a partial negative charge on the
other. The atom that attracts the electrons more strongly acquires the partial negative charge and vice versa. For
example, the electrons in the H–Cl bond of a hydrogen chloride molecule spend more time near the chlorine atom
than near the hydrogen atom. Thus, in an HCl molecule, the chlorine atom carries a partial negative charge and the
hydrogen atom has a partial positive charge.

(a) The distribution of electron density in the HCl molecule is

uneven. The electron density is greater around the chlorine
nucleus. The small, black dots indicate the location of the
hydrogen and chlorine nuclei in the molecule.

(b) Symbols δ+ and δ– indicate the polarity of the H–Cl bond.

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 27

Polar covalent bond
Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electrons (or electron
density) towards itself. It determines how the shared electrons are distributed between the two
atoms in a bond. The more strongly an atom attracts the electrons in its bonds, the larger its
electronegativity. Electrons in a polar covalent bond are shifted toward the more
electronegative atom; thus, the more electronegative atom is the one with the partial negative
charge. The greater the difference in electronegativity, the more polarized the electron
distribution and the larger the partial charges of the atoms.

Be careful not to confuse electronegativity and electron affinity. The electron affinity of an element is
a measurable physical quantity, namely, the energy released or absorbed when an isolated gas-
phase atom acquires an electron, measured in kJ/mol. Electronegativity, on the other hand,
describes how tightly an atom attracts electrons in a bond. It is a dimensionless quantity that is
calculated, not measured. Pauling derived the first electronegativity values by comparing the
amounts of energy required to break different types of bonds. He chose an arbitrary relative scale
ranging from 0 to 4.

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 28

In general, electronegativity increases from left to right across a period in the periodic table and decreases down a group. Thus, the
nonmetals, which lie in the upper right, tend to have the highest electronegativities, with fluorine the most electronegative element of
all (EN = 4.0). Metals tend to be less electronegative elements, and the group 1 metals have the lowest electronegativities. Note that
noble gases are excluded from this figure because these atoms usually do not share electrons with others atoms since they have a full
valence shell.
25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 29
Dative covalent bonding or coordinate bonding
 This is similar to covalent bonding but the difference lies in the fact that the electron being shared is donated by
one of the participating atom as illustrated in the formation of ammonium ion

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 30

Dative covalent bonding or coordinate
bonding

Compounds containing coordinate covalent bonds have similar

properties with compounds containing purely covalent bonds.
They are however less volatile.

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 31

Lewis Structures
 Lewis symbols are used to indicate the formation of covalent bonds, which are shown in Lewis structures,
drawings that describe the bonding in molecules and polyatomic ions. For example, when two chlorine atoms
form a chlorine molecule, they share one pair of electrons:

 The Lewis structure indicates that each Cl atom has three pairs of electrons that are not used in bonding (called
lone pairs) and one shared pair of electrons (written between the atoms). A dash (or line) is sometimes used to
indicate a shared pair of electrons:

 A single shared pair of electrons is called a single bond. Each Cl atom interacts with eight valence electrons: the
six in the lone pairs and the two in the single bond.

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 32

Lewis Structures

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 33

Lewis Structures

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 34

The Octet Rule
The other halogen molecules (F2, Br2, I2, and At2) form bonds like those in the chlorine molecule: one single bond
between atoms and three lone pairs of electrons per atom. This allows each halogen atom to have a noble gas electron
configuration. The tendency of main group atoms to form enough bonds to obtain eight valence electrons is known as
the octet rule.
The number of bonds that an atom can form can often be predicted from the number of electrons needed to reach an
octet (eight valence electrons); this is especially true of the nonmetals of the second period of the periodic table (C,
N, O, and F). For example, each atom of a group 14 element has four electrons in its outermost shell and therefore
requires four more electrons to reach an octet.

These four electrons can be gained by forming four covalent bonds, as illustrated here for carbon in CCl 4 (carbon
tetrachloride) and silicon in SiH4 (silane). Because hydrogen only needs two electrons to fill its valence shell, it is an
exception to the octet rule. The transition elements and inner transition elements also do not follow the octet rule:

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 35

The Octet Rule
 Group 15 elements such as nitrogen have five
valence electrons in the atomic Lewis symbol:
one lone pair and three unpaired electrons. To
obtain an octet, these atoms form three covalent
bonds, as in NH3 (ammonia). Oxygen and other
atoms in group 16 obtain an octet by forming two
covalent bonds:
 A double bond forms when two pairs of
electrons are shared between a pair of atoms, as
between the carbon and oxygen atoms in CH2O
(formaldehyde) and between the two carbon
atoms in C2H4 (ethylene):

 A triple bond forms when three electron pairs

are shared by a pair of atoms, as in carbon
monoxide (CO) and the cyanide ion (CN–):

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 36

Writing Lewis Structures with the Octet Rule
For very simple molecules and molecular ions, we can write the Lewis structures by merely
pairing up the unpaired electrons on the constituent atoms.

See these examples:

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 37

Writing Lewis Structures with the Octet Rule
For more complicated molecules and molecular ions, it is helpful to follow the step-by-step procedure outlined here:
1. Determine the total number of valence (outer shell) electrons. For cations, subtract one electron for
each positive charge. For anions, add one electron for each negative charge.

2. Draw a skeleton structure of the molecule or ion, arranging the atoms around a central atom.
(Generally, the least electronegative element should be placed in the centre.) Connect each atom to the
central atom with a single bond (one electron pair).

3. Distribute the remaining electrons as lone pairs on the terminal atoms (except hydrogen), completing
an octet around each atom.

4. Place all remaining electrons on the central atom.

5. Rearrange the electrons of the outer atoms to make multiple bonds with the central atom in order to
obtain octets wherever possible.

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 38

Writing Lewis Structures with the Octet Rule
Let us determine the Lewis structures of SiH4, CHO2−, NO+, and OF2 as examples in following this
procedure:

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 39

Writing Lewis Structures with the Octet Rule

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 40

Writing Lewis Structures with the Octet Rule
2. Draw a skeleton structure of the molecule or ion, arranging the atoms around a central atom and connecting each
atom to the central atom with a single (one electron pair) bond. (Note that we denote ions with brackets around the
structure, indicating the charge outside the brackets:)

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 41

Writing Lewis Structures with the Octet Rule

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 42

Writing Lewis Structures with the Octet Rule

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 43

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 44

Electron-deficient Molecules

A few molecules contain central atoms that do not have a filled valence shell. These are molecules with central atoms
from groups 2 and 12, outer atoms that are hydrogen, or other atoms that do not form multiple bonds. For example, in
the Lewis structures of beryllium dihydride, BeH2, and boron trifluoride, BF3, the beryllium and boron atoms each
have only four and six electrons, respectively. It is possible to draw a structure with a double bond between a boron
atom and a fluorine atom in BF3, satisfying the octet rule, but experimental evidence indicates the bond lengths are
closer to that expected for B–F single bonds. This suggests the best Lewis structure has three B–F single bonds and an
electron deficient boron. The reactivity of the compound is also consistent with an electron deficient boron. However,
the B–F bonds are slightly shorter than what is actually expected for B–F single bonds, indicating that some double
bond character is found in the actual molecule.

An atom like the boron atom in BF3, which does not have eight electrons, is very reactive. It readily combines with a
molecule containing an atom with a lone pair of electrons. For example, NH 3 reacts with BF3 because the lone pair on
nitrogen can be shared with the boron atom:

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 45

Hypervalent Molecules

Elements in the second period of the periodic table (n = 2) can accommodate only eight electrons in their valence shell
orbitals because they have only four valence orbitals (one 2s and three 2p orbitals). Elements in the third and higher periods
(n ≥ 3) have more than four valence orbitals and can share more than four pairs of electrons with other atoms because they
have empty d orbitals in the same shell. Molecules formed from these elements are sometimes called
hypervalent molecules.

In some hypervalent molecules, such as IF5 and XeF4, some of the electrons in the outer shell of the central atom are
lone pairs:

When we write the Lewis structures for these molecules, we find that we have electrons left over after filling the
valence shells of the outer atoms with eight electrons. These additional electrons must be assigned to the central atom.
25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 46
Molecular Structure
VSEPR Theory
Valence shell electron-pair repulsion theory (VSEPR theory) enables us to predict the molecular structure, including
approximate bond angles around a central atom, of a molecule from an examination of the number of bonds and lone
electron pairs in its Lewis structure. The VSEPR model assumes that electron pairs in the valence shell of a central atom
will adopt an arrangement that minimizes repulsions between these electron pairs by maximizing the distance between
them. The electrons in the valence shell of a central atom form either bonding pairs of electrons, located primarily between
bonded atoms, or lone pairs. The electrostatic repulsion of these electrons is reduced when the various regions of high
electron density assume positions as far from each other as possible.

VSEPR theory predicts the arrangement of electron pairs around each central atom and, usually, the correct arrangement of
atoms in a molecule. We should understand, however, that the theory only considers electron-pair repulsions. Other
interactions, such as nuclear-nuclear repulsions and nuclear-electron attractions, are also involved in the final arrangement
that atoms adopt in a particular molecular structure.

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 47

Molecular Structure Table 1: The basic electron-pair geometries predicted by VSEPR theory maximize the
space around any region of electron density (bonds or lone pairs).

Let us predict the structure of a gaseous BeF2

molecule

The Lewis structure of BeF2 shows only two

electron pairs around the central beryllium
atom. With two bonds and no lone pairs of
electrons on the central atom, the bonds are as
far apart as possible, and the electrostatic
repulsion between these regions of high
electron density is reduced to a minimum when
they are on opposite sides of the central atom.
The bond angle is 180°

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 48

Electron-pair Geometry versus Molecular Structure
It is important to note that electron-pair geometry around a central atom is not the same thing as its molecular structure.
The electron-pair geometries shown in Table 1 describe all regions where electrons are located, bonds as well as lone
pairs. Molecular structure describes the location of the atoms, not the electrons.
We differentiate between these two situations by naming the geometry that includes all electron pairs the electron-pair
geometry.
The structure that includes only the placement of the atoms in the molecule is called the molecular
structure.
The electron-pair geometries will be the same as the molecular structures when there are no lone electron
pairs around the central atom, but they will be different when there are lone pairs present on the central atom.

Molecular The molecular structure of the methane molecule, CH4, is shown with a
structure of tetrahedral arrangement of the hydrogen atoms. VSEPR structures like this
methane (CH4). one are often drawn using the wedge and dash notation, in which solid lines
CH4 has four represent bonds in the plane of the page, solid wedge represent bonds
bonding pairs coming up out of the plane, and dashed lines represent bonds going down
Tetrahedral with into the plane.
of electrons
bond angles of
around the
109°
central carbon
atom.
25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 49
Molecular structure of ammonia
The ammonia molecule, NH3, also has four electron pairs associated with the nitrogen atom, and thus has a
tetrahedral electron-pair geometry. One of these regions, however, is a lone pair, which is not included in the
molecular structure, and this lone pair influences the shape of the molecule.

(a) The electron-pair geometry for the ammonia molecule is tetrahedral with one lone pair and three
single bonds. (b) The trigonal pyramidal molecular structure is determined from the electron-pair
geometry. (c) The actual bond angles deviate slightly from the idealized angles because the lone pair
takes up a larger region of space than do the single bonds, causing the HNH angle to be slightly smaller
than 109.5°.
25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 50
Order of electron repulsions
VSEPR theory predicts these distortions by establishing an order of repulsions and an order of the amount of space
occupied by different kinds of electron pairs. The order of electron-pair repulsions from greatest to least repulsion is:

lone pair-lone pair > lone pair-bonding pair > bonding pair-bonding pair

This order of repulsions determines the amount of space occupied by different regions of electrons. A lone pair of
electrons occupies a larger region of space than the electrons in a triple bond; in turn, electrons in a triple bond occupy
more space than those in a double bond, and so on.

The order of sizes from largest to smallest is:

lone pair > triple bond > double bond > single bond

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 51

Order of electron
repulsions

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 52

Predicting Electron-Pair Geometry and Molecular Structure
The following procedure uses VSEPR theory to determine the electron pair geometries and the molecular
structures:

1. Write the Lewis structure of the molecule or polyatomic ion.

2. Count the number of regions of electron density (lone pairs and bonds) around the central atom. A single,
double, or triple bond counts as one region of electron density.

3. Identify the electron-pair geometry based on the number of regions of electron density: linear, trigonal
planar,
tetrahedral, trigonal bipyramidal, or octahedral

4. Use the number of lone pairs to determine the molecular structure. If more than one arrangement of lone
pairs and chemical bonds is possible, choose the one that will minimize repulsions, remembering that lone
pairs occupy more space than multiple bonds, which occupy more space than single bonds. In trigonal
bipyramidal arrangements, repulsion is minimized when every lone pair is in an equatorial position. In an
octahedral arrangement with two lone pairs, repulsion is minimized when the lone pairs are on opposite sides
of the central atom.
25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 53
25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 54
Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure: Ammonium ion

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 55

Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure: Lone Pairs on the Central Atom
Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of a water molecule.
Solution
The Lewis structure of H2O indicates that there are four regions of high electron density around the oxygen
atom: two lone pairs and two chemical bonds:

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 56

Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure: SF 4
Sulfur tetrafluoride, SF4, is extremely valuable for the preparation of fluorine-containing compounds used as herbicides (i.e.,
SF4 is used as a fluorinating agent). Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of a SF 4 molecule.

Solution
The Lewis structure of SF4 indicates five regions of electron density around the sulfur atom: one lone pair
and four bonding pairs:
We expect these five regions to adopt a trigonal bipyramidal electron-pair geometry.
To minimize lone pair repulsions, the lone pair occupies one of the equatorial positions.
The molecular structure (Figure 7.24) is that of a seesaw (Figure 7.19).

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 57

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 58
Intermolecular chemical bonding
1. Van der Waals Forces
They are weak intermolecular forces that are dependent on the distance between atoms or molecules.
These forces arise from the interactions between uncharged atoms/molecules. For example, Van der
Waals forces can arise from the fluctuation in the polarizations of two particles that are close to each
other. In the group of forces that fall under the category of ‘weak chemical forces’, Van der Waals forces
are the weakest. They are known to rapidly vanish when the distance between the interacting
molecules increases. The strengths of Van der Waals forces typically range from 0.4 kJmol-1 to 4 kJmol-1 .
When the electron density around the nucleus of an atom undergoes a transient shift, it is common for
Van der Waals forces to arise. For example, when the electron density increases in one side of the
nucleus, the resulting transient charge may attract or repel a neighbouring atom. The nature of these
forces is dependent on the distance between the atoms:

 When the distance between the atoms is greater than 0.6 nm, the forces are extremely weak and
cannot be observed.
 When the distance between the atoms ranges from 0.6 to 0.4 nm, the forces are attractive.
 If the interatomic distance is smaller than 0.4 nm, the forces are repulsive in nature.

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 59

Van der Waals Forces Characteristics of Van der Waals Forces
 Covalent bonds and ionic bonds are significantly stronger
than Van der Waals forces
 These forces are additive in nature, they are made up of
several individual interactions
 These forces cannot be saturated
 No directional characteristic can be attributed to these
forces
 They are not dependent on temperature (with the
exception of dipole-dipole interactions)
 Van der Waals forces are short-range forces. Their
magnitude is high when the atoms/molecules in question
are close to each other.

An illustration detailing the induced formation of a dipole

in an atom/molecule due to a fluctuating dipole in another
atom/molecule is provided above. The adsorption of
gaseous molecules to the surface of an adsorbent and the
cohesion of condensed phases can be accounted for by Van
der Waals forces.
25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 60
a) Dipole-dipole forces
A dipole-dipole force is an attraction between
the negative end of one polar molecule and the
positive end of another. Dipole-dipole forces are
often the result of electrons being unequally
distributed among the atoms in a compound.
Amino acids are an example of polar molecules
that would undergo a dipole-dipole interaction.
Dipole-dipole forces are the weakest among the
three types of intermolecular forces. For this
reason, dipole-dipole forces really only tend to
have discernible effects when the polar atoms
are packed closely together. If the polar atoms
were more diffuse, and frenzied in their
movements, the dipole-dipole forces would not
be able to take effect, as they would not be
strong enough to force bonds between the polar
atoms. This owes to the fact that dipole-dipole
forces occur between polar molecules, which are
neutral overall, and do not exhibit tremendous
differences in charge, even between their two
poles. 25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 61
b) Ion-dipole forces

Ion-dipole intermolecular forces involve one neutral molecule with a dipole

and one ion, both busily engaged in electrostatic interaction. An ion is an
electrically charged atom or molecule (which is to say the opposite of a neutral
molecule). 'Dipole' simply means having two oppositely charged poles, one
positive and one negative. A molecule with a dipole can also be referred to as
a polar molecule.
Ion-dipole interactions tend to occur whenever polar solvents are dissolving
ionic compounds. Water would be a classic example of a polar solvent, and the
dissolved ionic compounds could be such substances as sodium and table salt.
Ion-dipole interactions are fairly weak as far as intermolecular forces are
concerned. For an ion-dipole interaction to take effect, the ion and polar
molecule in question must be in substantially closer proximity than is the case
for hydrogen bonds. But ion-dipole forces are not the weakest of the
intermolecular forces. For this, we will have to turn to dipole-dipole forces.
25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 62
b) London or dispersion forces

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 63

Hydrogen Bonding
 Hydrogen bonding refers to the formation of Hydrogen bonds, which are a special class of attractive
intermolecular forces that arise due to the dipole-dipole interaction between a hydrogen atom that is
bonded to a highly electronegative atom and another highly electronegative atom which lies in the
vicinity of the hydrogen atom. For example, in water molecules (H2O), hydrogen is covalently bonded to
the more electronegative oxygen atom. Therefore, hydrogen bonding arises in water molecules due to
the dipole-dipole interactions between the hydrogen atom of one water molecule and the oxygen atom
of another H2O molecule.

 Here, the location of the bond pair of electrons in the O-H bond is very close to the oxygen nucleus (due
to the large difference in the electronegativities of oxygen and hydrogen). Therefore, the oxygen atom
develops a partial negative charge (δ-) and the hydrogen atom develops a partial positive charge (δ+).
Now, hydrogen bonding can occur due to the electrostatic attraction between the hydrogen atom of one
water molecule (with δ+ charge) and the oxygen atom of another water molecule (with δ- charge). Thus,
hydrogen bonds are a very special class of intermolecular attractive forces that arise only in compounds
featuring hydrogen atoms bonded to a highly electronegative atom. Hydrogen bonds are mostly strong
in comparison to normal dipole-dipole and dispersion forces. However, they are weak compared to true
covalent or ionic bonds.

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 64

Conditions for Hydrogen
Bonding
In a molecule, when a hydrogen atom is linked to a highly Effects of Hydrogen Bonding on Elements
electronegative atom, it attracts the shared pair of electrons more 1. Association
and so this end of the molecules becomes slightly negative while The molecules of carboxylic acids exist as
the other end becomes slightly positive.  The negative end of one dimer because of the hydrogen bonding.
molecule attracts the positive end of the other and as a result, a The molecular masses of such compounds
weak bond is formed between them. This bond is are found to be double than those
called the hydrogen bond. calculated from their simple formula.
As a result of hydrogen bonding, a hydrogen atom links the two
electronegative atoms simultaneously, one by a covalent bond and 2. Dissociation
the other by a hydrogen bond. The conditions for hydrogen bonding In aqueous solution, HF dissociates and
are: gives the difluoride ion instead of fluoride
1.The molecule must contain a highly electronegative atom linked ion. This is due to hydrogen bonding in HF.
to the hydrogen atom. The higher the electronegativity more is the The molecules of HCl, HBr, HI do not form a
polarization of the molecule. hydrogen bond. This explains the non-
2.The size of the electronegative atom should be small. The smaller existence of compounds like KHCl2, KHBr2,
the size, the greater is the electrostatic attraction. KHI2.

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 65

Types of Hydrogen Bonding
1. Intermolecular Hydrogen Bonding 2. Intramolecular Hydrogen Bonding
When hydrogen bonding takes place The hydrogen bonding which takes place within a molecule
between different molecules of the same itself is called intramolecular hydrogen bonding. It takes
or different compounds, it is place in compounds containing two groups such that one
called intermolecular hydrogen bonding. group contains hydrogen atom linked to an electronegative
For example – hydrogen bonding in water, atom and the other group contains a highly electronegative
alcohol, ammonia etc. atom linked to a lesser electronegative atom of the other
group. The bond is formed between the hydrogen atoms of
one group with the more electronegative atom of the other
group

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 66

Summary
Ionic Bonding : Atoms gain or lose electrons to form ions with particularly stable electron configurations. The charges of
cations formed by the representative metals may be determined readily because, with few exceptions, the electronic
structures of these ions have either a noble gas configuration or a completely filled electron shell. The charges of anions
formed by the nonmetals may also be readily determined because these ions form when nonmetal atoms gain enough
electrons to fill their valence shells.
Covalent Bonding: Covalent bonds form when electrons are shared between atoms and are attracted by the nuclei of both
atoms. In pure covalent bonds, the electrons are shared equally. In polar covalent bonds, the electrons are shared unequally,
as one atom exerts a stronger force of attraction on the electrons than the other. The ability of an atom to attract a pair of
electrons in a chemical bond is called its electronegativity. The difference in electronegativity between two atoms determines
how polar a bond will be. In a diatomic molecule with two identical atoms, there is no difference in electronegativity, so the
bond is nonpolar or pure covalent. When the electronegativity difference is very large, as is the case between metals and
nonmetals, the bonding is characterized as ionic.
Metallic Bonding: A metallic bond refers to the electrostatic force of attraction between free electrons are a lattice of cations.
The outer energy levels of metal atoms (the s and p orbitals) overlap. At least one of the valence electrons participating in a
metallic bond is not shared with a neighbouring atom, nor is it lost to form an ion. Instead, the electrons form what may be
termed an "electron sea" in which valence electrons are free to move from one atom to another. The electron sea model is an
oversimplification of metallic bonding. Metallic bonding may be seen as a consequence of a material having many more
delocalized energy states than it has delocalized electrons (electron deficiency), so localized unpaired electrons may become
delocalized and mobile. The electrons can change energy states and move throughout a lattice in any direction.

25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 67

Summary
Lewis Symbols and Structures: Valence electronic structures can be visualized by drawing Lewis symbols (for atoms and
monatomic ions) and Lewis structures (for molecules and polyatomic ions). Lone pairs, unpaired electrons, and single, double,
or triple bonds are used to indicate where the valence electrons are located around each atom in a Lewis structure. Most
structures—especially those containing second row elements—obey the octet rule, in which every atom (except H) is
surrounded by eight electrons. Exceptions to the octet rule occur for odd-electron molecules (free radicals), electron deficient
molecules, and hypervalent molecules.
Structure and shape of molecules: VSEPR theory predicts the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule. It states
that valence electrons will assume an electron-pair geometry that minimizes repulsions between areas of high electron density
(bonds and/or lone pairs). Molecular structure, which refers only to the placement of atoms in a molecule and not the
electrons, is equivalent to electron-pair geometry only when there are no lone electron pairs around the central atom.
Bond angle: angle between any two covalent bonds that share a common atom
Bond length: (also, bond length) distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms at which the lowest potential energy is
achieved
Bond energy: (also, bond dissociation energy) energy required to break a covalent bond in a gaseous substance

Covalent bond: bond formed when electrons are shared between atoms
Pure or non-polar covalent bond: is a type of chemical bond that is formed when electrons are shared equally between
two atoms. 
25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 68
Summary
Dative covalent bond: Co-ordinate bond is a type of alternate covalent bond that is formed by sharing of electron pair from a
single atom. Both shared electrons are donated by the same atom.
Polar covalent Bond: a bond that exists between two atoms consisting of electrons that are unevenly distributed. Due to this
state, the molecules tend to have some electrical dipole moment wherein the two ends are either slightly positive or
negative. Electronegativity plays a major role in determining the different types of covalent bonding. 

Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract a shared pair of an electron towards itself. It has no units simple it is a
tendency. The covalent bond formed between two atoms in molecules whose electronegative difference exists is known as a
polar covalent bond.
Electron affinity: is the potential energy change of the atom when an electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom to form a
negative ion. So the more negative the electron affinity the more favourable the electron addition process is.
Formal charge: charge that would result on an atom by taking the number of valence electrons on the neutral atom
and subtracting the nonbonding electrons and the number of bonds (one-half of the bonding electrons)

Electropositivity: the tendency of an atom to donate electrons and form positively charged cations.” Electropositivity is
primarily exhibited by metallic elements, especially the alkali metals and the alkaline earth metals.

Ionization energy: energy required to remove an electron from a atom in the gaseous phase. Ionization energy is simple terms
can be described as a measure of the difficulty in removing an electron from an atom or ion or the tendency of an atom or ion
to surrender an electron. It is a measure of strength (attractive forces) by which an electron is held in a place.
25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 69
Summary
Octet rule: guidelines that states main group atoms will form structures in which eight valence electrons interact with
each nucleus, counting bonding electrons as interacting with both atoms connected by the bond

Valence shell electron pair-repulsion (VSEPR) theory is used to predict the bond angles in a molecule based on positioning
regions of high electron density as far apart as possible to minimize electrostatic repulsion
Lone pair: two (a pair of) valence electrons that are not used to form a covalent bond
Linear shape: shape in which two outside groups are placed on opposite sides of a central atom

Trigonal planer: shape in which three outside groups are placed in a flat triangle around a central atom with 120°
angles between each pair and the central atom
Tetrahedral shape in which four outside groups are placed around a central atom such that a three-dimensional shape is
generated with four corners and 109.5° angles between each pair and the central atom
Trigonal bipyramidal: shape in which five outside groups are placed around a central atom such that three form a flat triangle
with 120° angles between each pair and the central atom, and the other two form the apex of two pyramids, one above and
one below the triangular plane
Octahedral shape in which six outside groups are placed around a central atom such that a three-dimensional shape is
generated with four groups forming a square and the other two forming the apex of two pyramids, one above and one below
the square plane
25.04.2023 Lets learn together! 70