CE 302

DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

Prepared by
Anchu Ajayakumar
 COURSE OBJECTIVES:

• To impart knowledge regarding the design of the

various minor irrigation structures
• To convey the knowledge on the causes of
failure, design criteria and stability analysis of
different types of dams
 COURSE OUTCOMES:

• Perform the stability analysis of gravity dams

• Explain the causes of failure of different types of
dams and their design criteria
• Design minor irrigation structures such as
regulators, cross drainage works and canal falls
 TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCES:

• Garg S.K, Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic

Structures, Khanna Publishers, 2006.
• Modi. P. N., Irrigation Water Resources and Water Power
Engineering, Standard Book House, 2009.
• Punmia B.C et al. Irrigation and Water Power Engineering,
Laxmi Publications
• Arora, K.R., Irrigation, Water Power and Water Resources Engineering
• Asawa. G.L. Irrigation and Water Resources Engineering
• Sahasrabudhe S.R., Irrigation Engineering & Hydraulic Structures
• Sathyanarayana M. C. Water Resources Engineering-Principles and
Practice
• Varshney, R.S. Theory & Design of Irrigation Structures - Vol III
 SYLLABUS
MODULE 1

• Diversion head works- layout and functions of

components, Weir and barrage
• Causes of failure of weirs on permeable soils
• Bligh’s theory
• Design of vertical drop weir
• Khosla’s theory of independent variables
• Khosla’s corrections
• Use of Khosla’s charts.
 INTRODUCTION

• Any hydraulic structures which supplies water

to the off taking canals is called head works
• Head work may be divided into
– Storage head works
– Diversion head works
 DIVERSION HEAD WORKS
• The work, which are constructed at the head of
the canal in order to divert the river water towards
the canal, so as to ensure a regular continuous
supply of silt free water with a certain minimum
head into the canal, are known as diversion head
works.
DIVERSION HEAD WORKS
 OBJECTIVES OF DIVERSION HEAD
WORKS
• To rise the water level at the head of the canal
• To form a storage by constructing embankments
on both the banks of the river so that water is
available throughout the year
• To control the entry of the silt into the canal and
to control the deposition of silt at the head of the
canal
• To control the fluctuation of water level in the
river during different seasons
Objective of Diversion Head works
Objective of Diversion Head works
Objective of Diversion Head works
Objective of Diversion Head works
Objective of Diversion Head works
 Selection of Site for Diversion Head Works
• The following points should be considered to
select a site for this diversion headworks.
• The river should be straight and narrow at the
site
• The elevation of site should be higher than the
area to be irrigated for gravity flow.
• River banks at site should be well defined and
stable.
• Valuable land upstream of the barrier like
weir or barrage should not be submerged.
 Selection of Site for Diversion Head Works
• Material of construction should be locally
available.
• Roads or railway communication to the site is
essential to carry the material of
construction.
• Site should be close to the cropland to
minimize loss of water due to seepage and
evaporation of canal.
• The site should provide a good foundation for
construction of weir or barrage.
Components of Diversion Headworks
Components of Diversion Headworks
 Components of Diversion Headworks
• The components of diversion headworks
are:
1. Weir or barrage
2. Canal head regulator
3. Divide Wall
4. Fish Ladder
5. Scouring Sluices Under sluices
6. Silt excluder
7. Silt ejector.
8. Marginal embankment or dikes
9. Guide bank
 Weir or Barrage

• Weir is a solid obstruction placed across the

river. Its main function is to raise the water level
so that water can be diverted by canal to crop
field due to difference of head.
• Barrage is practically a low weir with an
adjustable gate over this low weir. Heading up of
water is affected by gate.
Weir
Weir
Weir
Barrage
Barrage
Barrage
Comparison Between Weir & a Barrage
Types of Weir
 Types of Weir
• Weir may be of different types based on material of
construction, design features and types of soil foundation as:
• Vertical Drop Weir
• A crest gate may be provided to store more water during flood
period.
• At the u/s and d/s ends of impervious floor cut off piles are
provided.
• Launching apron are provided both at u/s and d/s ends of
floor to safeguard against scouring action.
• A graded filter is provided immediately at the d/s end of
impervious floor to relieve the uplift pressure.
• This type of weir is suitable for any type of foundation.
Vertical Drop Weir
Vertical Drop Weir
Vertical Drop Weir
 Types of Weir
• Sloping Weir of Concrete:
• This type is suitable for soft sandy foundation.
• It is used where difference in weir crest and d/s
riverbed is not more than 3 m.
• Hydraulic jump is formed when water passes over
the sloping glacis.
• Weir of this type is of recent origin.
Sloping Weir of Concrete
Sloping Weir of Concrete
 Types of Weir
• Parabolic Weir:
• A parabolic weir is almost similar to spillway
section of dam.
• The weir body wall for this weir is designed as
low dam.
• A cistern is provided at downstream.
Types of Weir
 Types of Weir
• Dry Stone Slopping Weir:
• It is dry stone or rock fill weir.
• It consists of body wall and upstream and
downstream dry stones are laid in the form of
glacis with some intervening core wall.
Dry Stone Slopping Weir
Dry Stone Slopping Weir
 Barrage
• When the water level on the upstream side of the
weir is required to be raised to different levels at
different time, then the barrage is constructed.

• Practically a barrage is an arrangement of

adjustable gates or shutters at different tiers over
the weir. The water level can be adjusted by the
opening of gates.
Barrage
 Divide Wall
• The Divide Wall is a long wall constructed at right angle to the weir
or barrage
• It may be constructed with stone masonry or cement concrete.
• On the u/s, the wall is extended just to cover the canal regulator and
on the down stream side, it is extended up to the launching apron.
• The functions of the divide wall are as follows,
(a) To form a still water pocket in front of the canal head so that the
suspended silt can be settled down which then later can be cleared
through the scouring sluices from time to time.
(b) It controls the eddy current or cross current in front of the
canal head.
(c) It provides a straight approach in front of the canal head.
(d) It resists the overturning effect on the weir or barrage caused by
the pressure of the impounding water.
Divide Wall
 Scouring Sluices or Under Sluices
• The Scouring sluices are the openings provided at the
base of the weir or barrage.
• These openings are provided with adjustable
gates.(Normally, the gates are kept closed. )
• The suspended silt goes on the depositing in front of
the canal head regulator.
• When the silt deposition becomes appreciable the
gates are opened and the deposited silt is loosened
with an agitator mounting on a boat.
• The muddy water flows towards the downstream
side through the scouring sluices.
• The gates are closed. But, at the period of flood, the
gates are kept opened.
Under Sluices
Scouring Sluices or Under Sluices
 Fish Ladder
• The Fish Ladder is provided by the side of the divide wall
for the movement of fishes.
• The tendency of fish is to move from u/s to d/s in
winters and from d/s to u/s in monsoons.
• Due to construction of weir or barrage, this movement
gets obstructed, and is detrimental to the fishes.
• For the movement of the fishes along the course of the
river, the fish ladder is essential
• the baffle walls are constructed in the zigzag manner so
that the velocities of flow within the ladder does not
exceed 3 m/s
• The width, length, and height of the fish ladder depends
on the nature of the river and the type of the weir or
barrage
Fish Ladder
Fish Ladder
 Canal Head Regulator
• A structure which is constructed at the head of the canal regulator to
regulate the flow of water is known as canal head regulator
• It consists of a number of piers which divide the total width of the
canal into a number of spans which are known as bays.
• The pier consists of a number of tiers on which the adjustable gates are
placed.
• A platform is produced on the top of the piers for the facility of
operating the gates
• Again some piers are constructed on the downstream side of the canal
head to support the roadway.
Canal Head Regulator
Canal Head Regulator
 Silt Excluder
• When still pocket is formed in front of the canal
head by constructing the divide wall, then it is found
that the lower layer of water contains heavy silt and
the upper layer contains very fine silt.
• The fine silt is very fertile and it may be allowed to
enter the canal.
• But the heavy silt causes sedimentation in the pocket.
• To eliminate the suspended heavy silt, the silt
excluder is provided.
• It consists of a series of tunnels starting from the side
of the head regulator up to the divide wall
 Silt Excluder
• The tunnel nearest to the head regulator is longest, and the successive
tunnels decrease in length, the tunnel nearest to the divide wall is
shortest.
• The tunnels are covered by R.C.C. Slab.

• The top level of the slab is kept below the sill level of the head
regulator
• So, the completely clear water is allowed to flow in the canal through
the head regulator
• The suspended heavy silt carried by the water enters the silt
excluder tunnels and passes out through the scouring sluices.
 Silt Excluder
• Silt excluders are those works which are
constructed on the bed of the river, upstream of
the head regulator
• The clearer water enters the head regulator and
silted water enters the silt excluder.
• In this type of works, the silt is, therefore,
removed from the water before in enters the
canal.
Silt Excluder
 Silt Ejectors
• Silt ejectors, also called silt extractors, are those devices
which extract the silt from the canal water after the
silted water has travelled a certain distance in the off-
take canal.
• These works are, therefore, constructed on the bed of
the canal, and little distance downstream from the
head regulator.
Silt Ejectors
 Marginal Embankments or dykes
• The marginal embankments or dykes are earthen
embankments which are constructed parallel to the river
bank on one or both the banks according to the condition.
• The top width is generally 3 to 4 m and side slope is
generally 1 ½ : 1 to 2: 1.
• The height of the embankment depends on the highest flood
level.
• A suitable margin is provided between the toe of the
embankment and the bank of the river.
• To resist the effect of erosion on the embankment, wooden
piles are driven along the river banks throughout the length
of dyke.
• The length of the dyke is protected by boulders pitching
with cement grouting and the downstream side is protected
by turfing.
 Marginal Embankments or dykes
• The Marginal Bunds are constructed for
the following purposes.
(a) It prevents the flood water or storage
water from entering the surrounding area.
(b) It retains the flood water or storage water
within a specified section.
(c) It Protects the towns and village
from devastation during the heavy flood.
(d) It protects valuable agricultural lands.
Marginal Embankments
 Guide Bank
• When a barrage is constructed across a river which flows
through the alluvial soil, the guide banks must be constructed
on both the approaches to protect the structure from erosion. It
is an earthen embankment with curved head on both the ends.
• The Guide Bank serves the following purposes.

• It protects the barrage from the effect of scouring and erosion.

• It controls the tendency of changing the course of the river.

• It controls the velocity of the flow near the structure.
Guide Bank
Guide Bank
 Guide Bank
• Components of Guide Banks are
 Upstream curved head
 Downstream curved head
 Shank portion which joins upstream and
downstream curved end
 Sloping apron
 Launching apron
 Pile protection
Guide Bank
Causes of failure of weirs on permeable soil
• Hydraulic structures are generally found on alluvial
soil which are highly pervious.
• These soils are easily scoured when high velocity
water passes over the structure.
FAILURE OF WEIRS

Failure due to subsurface Failure due to surface

flow flow

Failure by Failure by Failure by Failure by

piping rupture of floor suction pressure scour
 Failure due to subsurface flow
(a) By piping or undermining:

• The water from the u/s continuously percolates through

the bottom of the foundation and emerges at the d/s of the
weir or barrage floor.
• The force of percolating water removes the soil particles
by scouring at the point of emergence.
• As the process of removal of soil particles goes on
continuously, a depression is formed which extends
backwards towards the u/s through the bottom of the
foundation.
• A hollow pipe like formation thus develops under the
foundation due to which the weir or barrage may fail by
subsiding.
• This phenomenon is known as failure by piping or
undermining.
By Piping or Undermining
By Piping or Undermining
(b) By uplift Pressure:
• The percolating water exerts an upward pressure on the foundation of
the weir or barrage.
• If this uplift is not counterbalanced by the self weight of the
structure, it may fail by rapture.

2. Failure by Surface Flow:

(a) By Hydraulic Jump:
• When the water flows with a very high velocity over the crust of
the weir or over the gates of the barrage, then hydraulic jump
develops.
• This hydraulic jump causes a suction pressure or negative pressure
on the d/s side which acts in the direction of uplift pressure.
• If the thickness of the impervious floor is not sufficient, then the
structure fails by rapture.
(b) By Scouring During floods:

• The gates of the barrage are kept open and the water flows with
high velocity.
• The water may also flow with very high velocity over the
crest of the weir.
• Both the cases can result in scouring effect on the d/s and on the
u/s side of the structure.
• Due to scouring effect on the d/s and on the u/s side of the
structure, its stability gets endangered by shearing.
By Uplift Pressure
By Hydraulic Jump
By Scouring During floods
 REMEDIES FOR FAILURE OF
WEIR
The main remedies against failure are:
• Path of percolation or creep length of seepage water
should be increased by providing sheet piles at
upstream, downstream or at intermediate point to
reduce the hydraulic gradient.
• Floor thickness should be increased to increase its
self weight to balance the uplift force.
 PRECAUTIONSAGAINST FAILURE
The following precautions can be taken to prevent failure.

(a) The length of the impervious layer should be carefully

designed so that the path of the percolating water is
increased consequently reducing the exit gradient.

(b) Sheet piles should be provided on the upstream side and

the downstream side of the impervious floor to increase
to the length of percolating water so that the uplift
pressure is considerable reduced.
(c) The thickness of the impervious floor should be such that the
weight of the floor is a sufficient to counterbalance the uplift
pressure.
(d) Energy dissipater blocks like friction blocks, impact blocks, should
be provided.

(e) Inverted filter should be provided with concrete blocks on the

top so that the percolating water does not wash out the soil particles.

(f) Deep foundation like well foundation should be provided for the
barrage piers
Precautions Against Failure
Precautions Against Failure
Energy Dissipater Blocks
Increasing Floor Thickness
 FLOW NET
• A flownet is a graphical representation of two-
dimensional steady- state groundwater
flow through aquifers.
• The method consists of filling the flow area with
stream lines and equipotential lines, which are
everywhere perpendicular to each other, making a
curvilinear grid.
• Stream Lines: The streamlines represent the paths
along which the water flows through the sub-soil.
• Equipotential lines: Equipotential lines are lines of
• equal hydraulic head.
Flow Net
 Khosla’s Theory
• Khosla’s Theory and Concept of Flow Nets
• Many of the important hydraulic structures,
such as weirs and barrage, were designed
on the basis of Bligh’s theory between the
periods 1910 to 1925.
• In 1926 – 27, the upper Chenab canal
siphons, designed on Bligh’s theory, started
posing undermining troubles.
Investigations started, which ultimately lead
to Khosla’s theory
• The main principles of this theory are summarized below:

(a) The seepage water does not creep along the bottom contour of
pucca flood as started by Bligh, but on the other hand, this
water moves along a set of stream-lines.

This steady seepage in a vertical plane for a homogeneous soil

can be expressed by Laplacian equation:
 Khosla’s
Theory
• Th equation represents two sets of curves
intersecting
e each other orthogonally. The resultant flow
diagram showing both of the curves is called a Flow Net.
• Stream Lines: The streamlines represent the paths along
which the water flows through the sub-soil.
• Every particle entering the soil at a given point
upstream of the work, will trace out its own path and
will represent a streamline. The first
streamline
follows the bottom contour of the works and is
the same as Bligh’s path of creep. The
remaining
streamlines follows smooth curves transiting
slowly
from the outline of the foundation to a semi-ellipse, as
 Khosla’s Theory

• Equipotential Lines:

(1) Treating the downstream bed as datum and assuming no

water on the downstream side, it can be easily started that
every streamline possesses a head equal to h1 while entering
the soil; and when it emerges at the down-stream end into
the atmosphere, its head is zero.
Thus, the head h1 is entirely lost during the passage of water
along the streamlines.
 Khosla’s Theory

• Further, at every intermediate point in its path, there is

certain residual head (h) still to be dissipated in the
remaining length to be traversed to the downstream end.
• This fact is applicable to every streamline, and hence,
there will be points on different streamlines having the
same value of residual head h.
• If such points are joined together, the curve obtained is
called an equipotential line.
Khosla’s Theory
 Khosla’s Theory
Every water particle on line AB is having a residual
head h = h1, and on CD is having a residual head h =
0, and hence, AB and CD are equipotential lines.

Since an equipotential line represent the joining of

points of equal residual head, hence if piezometers
were installed on an equipotential line, the water
will rise in all of them up to the same level as
shown in figure below
Khosla’s Theory
 Khosla’s Theory
• The seepage water exerts a force at each point in the
direction of flow and tangential to the streamlines as
shown in figure above. This force (F) has an upward
component from the point where the streamlines turns
upward. For soil grains to remain stable, the upward
component of this force should be counterbalanced by
the submerged weight of the soil grain. This force has
the maximum disturbing tendency at the exit end,
because the direction of this force at the exit point is
vertically upward, and hence full force acts as its
upward component.
 Khosla’s Theory
• For the soil grain to stable,
submerged
remain weight of soil grain should
thebe more
than this upward disturbing force. The
disturbing force at any point is proportional to
the gradient of pressure of water at that point
(i.e. dp/dt). This gradient of pressure of water at
the exit end is called the exit gradient. In order
that the soil particles at exit remain stable, the
upward pressure at exit should be safe. In other
words, the exit gradient should be safe.
 Critical Exit Gradient
• This exit gradient is said to be critical, when
the upward disturbing force on the grain is
just equal to the submerged weight of the
grain at the exit. When a factor of safety
equal to 4 to 5 is used, the exit gradient can
then be taken as safe. In other words, an exit
gradient equal to ¼ to 1/5 of the critical exit
gradient ensured, so as to keep the structure
safe against piping.
• The submerged weight (Ws) of a unit volume
of soil is given as:
Critical Exit Gradient
 Khosla’s Method of independent variables for determination
of pressures and exit gradient for seepage below a weir or a
barrage
• In order to know as to how the seepage below the
foundation of a hydraulic structure is taking place, it
is
necessary to plot the flow net. In other words, we must
solve the Laplacian equations. This can
be
accomplished either by mathematical solution of the
Laplacian equations, or by Electrical analogy method,
conditions.
or by graphical sketchingare complicated
by adjustingmethods and
the streamlines
time
and consuming.are
These equipotential Therefore,
lines with for respect
designing to the
hydraulic
boundary
structures such as weirs or barrage or
pervious foundations, Khosla has evolved a simple,
quick and an
• accurate approach, called Method of
Khosla’s Method of independent variables for determination of
pressures and exit gradient for seepage below a weir or a barrage

• In this method, a complex profile like that of a

weir is broken into a number of simple profiles;
each of which can be solved mathematically.
profiles which are most useful are:
• (i) A straight horizontal floor of negligible
thickness with a sheet pile line on the u/s end and
d/s end.
• (ii) A straight horizontal floor depressed below the
bed but without any vertical cut-offs.
• (iii) A straight horizontal floor of negligible
thickness with a sheet pile line at some
intermediate point.
Khosla’s Method of independent variables for

determination of pressures and exit gradient for

seepage below a weir or a barrage
• The key points are the junctions of the floor and the
pole lines on either side, and the bottom point of
• the pile line, and the bottom corners in the case of a
depressed floor. The percentage pressures at these key
• points for the simple forms into which the complex
profile has been broken is valid for the complex
profile
• itself, if corrected for
• (a) Correction for the Mutual interference of Piles
• (b) Correction for the thickness of floor
• (c) Correction for the slope of the floor
 (a) Correction for the Mutual
interference
The correction C to be applied as percentage ofeffect,
of head due to this Pilesis
given by

Where,
b′ = The distance between two pile lines.
D = The depth of the pile line, the influence of which has to be determined
on
the neighboring pile of depth d. D is to be measured below the level
at which interference is desired.
d = The depth of the pile on which the effect is
considered b = Total floor length
The correction is positive for the points in the rear of
back water, and
subtractive for the points forward in the direction of flow. This equation
does not apply to the effect of an outer pile on an intermediate pile, if the
intermediate pile is equal to or smaller than the outer pile and is at a
(a) Correction for the Mutual
interference of Piles
 (a) Correction for the Mutual
interference of Piles
• Suppose in the above figure, we are considering the influence of
the pile no (2) on pile no (1) for correcting the pressure at C1.
Since the point C1 is in the rear, this correction shall be positive.
While the correction to be applied to E2 due to pile no (1)
shall be negative, since the point E2 is in the forward direction
of flow. Similarly, the correction at C2 due to pile no (3) is
positive and the correction at E2 due to pile no (2) is negative.
 (b) Correction for the Thickness of Floor

• In the standard form profiles, the floor is

assumed to have negligible thickness. Hence,
the percentage pressures calculated by
Khosla’s equations or graphs shall pertain to
the top levels of the floor. While the actual
junction points E and C are at the bottom of
the floor. Hence, the pressures at the actual
points are calculated by assuming a straight
line pressure variation.
(b) Correction for the thickness of floor
 (b) Correction for the thickness of floor
• Correction for the slope of the floor a correction is applied
for a slopping floor, and is taken as positive for the
downward slopes, an negative for the upward slopes
following the direction of flow. Values of correction of
standard slop such as 1 : 1, 2 : 1, 3 : 1, etc. are tabulated in
Table below
 (b) Correction for the thickness of floor

• The correction factor given above is to be multiplied

by the horizontal length of the slope and divided by
the distance between the two pile lines between
which the sloping floor is located. This correction is
applicable only to the key points of the pile line
fixed at the start or the end of the slope.
 Exit gradient (GE)
• It has been determined that for a standard form
consisting of a floor length (b) with a vertical cutoff
of depth (d), the exit gradient at its downstream end
is given by
 Important Questions
• Explain Khosla’s method of independent variables.
• Explain the term ”Diversion Head Work”
and clearly mention its different functions.
• Explain Bligh’s Creep Theory in details.
• What is weir? How does it differ from a
barrage structure?
• What are the functions of a canal head regulator?
• Explain the components of Diversion Head Work with a
neat sketch.
 Reference
• Irrigation Engineering : N.N. Basak
• Irrigation Engineering & Hydraulic
Structures: S.K.Garg
• Internet Websites
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