Communication Systems - II

Spring 2017

Lecture – 02

Instructor: Engr. Furqan Haider

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 Block Diagram of DCS

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 Basic Building Blocks

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 Goals in Communication System Design
• To maximize transmission rate, R
• To maximize system utilization, U
• To minimize bit error rate, Pe
• To minimize required systems bandwidth, W
• To minimize system complexity, Cx
• To minimize required power, Eb/No

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 1.2 Classification Of Signals

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 1. Deterministic and Random
Signals
• A signal is deterministic means that there is no uncertainty with
respect to its value at any time.

• Deterministic waveforms are modeled by explicit mathematical

expressions, example:
x(t) = 5cos(10t)
• A signal is random means that there is some degree of uncertainty
before the signal actually occurs.

• Random waveforms/ Random processes when examined over a

long period may exhibit certain regularities that can be described
in terms of probabilities and statistical averages.
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 2. Periodic and Non-periodic
Signals
• A signal x(t) is called periodic in time if there exists a constant
T0 > 0 such that
(1.2)x(t) = x(t + T0 ) for - < t < 
t denotes time and T0 is the period of x(t).

Periodic signal Aperiodic signal

• A signal for which there is no value of T0 is called an aperiodic signal.

Carrier Signals >>>>>>>>>>> Periodic

Information & Noise >>>>>> Non-Periodic
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 3. Analog and Discrete Signals
• An analog signal x(t) is a continuous function of time; that is,
x(t) is uniquely defined for all ‘t’
• A discrete signal x(kT) is one that exists only at discrete times;
it is characterized by a sequence of numbers defined for each
time, kT, where
k is an integer (sample index number)
T is a fixed time interval.

 Analog Signal
 Discrete Signal

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 4. Energy and Power Signals

• An electrical signal can be represented as a voltage

v(t) or a current i(t) with instantaneous power p(t)
across a resistor R defined by:

v 2 (t ) 2
p (t )   i (t ) R
R

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 4. Energy and Power Signals
(Cont.)
• In communication systems, power is often normalized
by assuming R=1Ω. For the normalized case, the
equation for p(t) becomes: 2 2
p (t )  v (t )  i (t )
• Therefore, regardless of whether the signal is a voltage
or current waveform, the normalization convention
allows us to express the instantaneous power as:
2
p (t )  x (t )
• Where x(t) is either a voltage or a current signal
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 4. Energy and Power Signals
(Cont.)
• The performance of a communication system depends on the
received signal energy; higher energy signals are detected more
reliably (with fewer errors) than are lower energy signals

• x(t) is classified as an energy signal if, and only if, it has nonzero but
finite energy (0 < Ex < ∞) for all time, where:
T/2 
Ex = lim 
T  T / 2
x 2 (t) dt(1.7) = 

x 2 (t) dt

• Signals that are both deterministic and non-periodic are classified

as energy signals

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 4. Energy and Power Signals
(Cont.)
• Power is the rate at which energy is delivered.

• A signal is defined as a power signal if, and only if, it has finite but
nonzero power (0 < Px < ∞) for all time, where
T/2
1
lim 
2
Px = (1.8) x (t) dt
T  T T / 2

• Power signal has finite average power but infinite energy.

• As a general rule, periodic signals and random signals are classified

as power signals

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 5. The Unit Impulse Function
• Dirac delta function δ(t) or impulse function is an abstraction—an
infinitely large amplitude pulse, with zero pulse width, and unity
weight (area under the pulse), concentrated at the point where its
argument is zero. 

  (t) dt(1.9)

=1
(1.10)
 (t) = 0 for t  0
(1.11)
 (t) is unbounded at t  0
• Sifting or Sampling Property

 x ( t ) (1.12)
(t-t 0 )dt = x(t 0 )
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 1.3 Spectral Density
• The spectral density of a signal characterizes the
distribution of the signal’s energy or power in the
frequency domain.

• This concept is particularly important when

considering filtering in communication systems while
evaluating the signal and noise at the filter output.

• The energy spectral density (ESD) or the power

spectral density (PSD) is used in the evaluation.
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 1. Energy Spectral Density (ESD)

• Energy spectral density describes the signal energy per unit bandwidth
measured in joules/hertz.
• Represented as ψx(f), the squared magnitude spectrum
2
 x ( f ) (1.14)
X ( f )
• According to Parseval’s theorem, the energy of x(t):
 
Ex =  x 2 (t) (1.13)
dt =  |X (f)| 2 d f
• Therefore: -  -

Ex =   (1.15)
-
(f) df
x

• The Energy spectral density is symmetrical in frequency about origin

and total energy of the signal x(t) can be expressed as:

(1.16)
E x = 2  x (f) df
0
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 2. Power Spectral Density (PSD)
• The power spectral density (PSD) function Gx(f ) of the periodic signal x(t) is
a real, even, and nonnegative function of frequency that gives the
distribution of the power of x(t) in the frequency domain.
• PSD is represented as:

G x (f ) =  n  ( f  nf 0 )
|C
n=-
| 2
(1.18)

• Whereas the average power of a periodic signal x(t) is represented as:

T0 /2
1 
Px 
T0  (1.17)
2
x (t) dt   n
|C
n=-
| 2

 T0 / 2

• Using PSD, the average normalized power of a real-valued signal is

represented as:  
Px  G

x df  2  G x (f) df
(f) (1.19)
0
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 1.4 Autocorrelation

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 1. Autocorrelation of an Energy
Signal
• Correlation is a matching process; autocorrelation refers to the
matching of a signal with a delayed version of itself.
• Autocorrelation function of a real-valued energy signal x(t) is
defined as:

R x ( ) =  x(t) x (t +  ) dt

for
(1.21) - <  < 

• The autocorrelation function Rx(τ) provides a measure of how

closely the signal matches a copy of itself as the copy is shifted
τ units in time.
• Rx(τ) is not a function of time; it is only a function of the time
difference τ between the waveform and its shifted copy.
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 1. Autocorrelation of an Energy
Signal
• The autocorrelation function of a real-valued energy signal has the
following properties:

R x ( ) =R x (- symmetrical
) about zero

R x ( )  R x (0)maximum
for all  value occurs at the origin

autocorrelation and ESD form a

x ( ) 
RFourier  x (f)pair, as designated
transform by the double-
headed arrows

R x (0)  

x 2 (t) dt
value at the origin is equal to
the energy of the signal
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 2. Autocorrelation of a Power
Signal
• Autocorrelation function of a real-valued power signal x(t) is defined
as:
T /2
1
R x ( )  lim
T 

T T / 2
x(t) x (t +  (1.22)
) dt for - <  < 

• When the power signal x(t) is periodic with period T0, the
autocorrelation function can be expressed as
T0 / 2
1 (1.23)for - <  < 
R x ( ) 
T0 
T0 / 2
x(t) x (t +  ) dt

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 2. Autocorrelation of a Power
Signal
• The autocorrelation function of a real-valued periodic signal has the
following properties similar to those of an energy signal:

R x ( ) =R x (- )symmetrical about zero

R x ( )  R x (0) for all  value occurs at the origin

maximum

autocorrelation and PSD form a

x ( ) 
RFourier Gx (f) pair
transform

1 value at the origin is equal to the

T0 / 2


2
R (0)
average
x power of x
the (t) dt
signal
T0  T0 / 2
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 Power Spectral Density and
Autocorrelation
• A random process X(t) can generally be classified as a power signal
having a power spectral density (PSD) GX(f )
• Principal features of PSD functions

1. G X ( f )  0 And is always real valued

for X(t) real-valued
2. G X ( f )  G X (  f ) Even function

3. GX ( f )  RX ( ) PSD and autocorrelation form a Fourier

transform pair

4. PX  G X ( f )df Relationship between average
 normalized power and PSD
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 Power Spectral Density

PSD enables us to evaluate the signal

power that will pass through a
network having known frequency
characteristics.

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 NOISE
• Any undesired signal superimposed onto my desired
signal is regarded as NOISE.
• e.g. i) Impulsive Noise
ii) Crosstalk
iii) Switching in electrical devices (manmade
noise)

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 NOISE
• BY NOISE WE MEAN, ALL THE EFFECTS, GOOD OR
BAD, INTRODUCED INTO OUR DESIRED ELECTRICAL
SIGNAL.

• The noise may not always be present in the channel,

it may interfere at the transmitter and at the receiver.
• But while modeling the effects of noise, we always
blame the channel.

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 Thermal Noise
• Noise from a variety of sources (man-made,
natural) may be eliminated from a
communication system, but one type of noise
‘Thermal Noise’ can never be eliminated.
• Thermal noise is caused by random motion of
electrons in all conducting materials.
• Also known as Johnson Noise.
• Thermal noise can be modeled as a zero mean
Gaussian random process.
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 Gaussian Process
• Gaussian process is central to many engineering
problems. It is most convenient model for
thermal noise.
• The Gaussian Process is important because of so
called ‘the central limit theorem’, which states
that “the distribution of sum of n statistically
independent random variables approches the
gaussian distribution as n→∞, no matter what
the individal distribution functions may be”
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 Gaussian Process
• A Gaussian Process n(t) is a random function
whose value at any arbitrary time t is statistically
characterized by the Guassian pdf.

• A Gaussian pdf is completely determined by two

parameters
– mean µ
– Standard deviation σ
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 Gaussian pdf

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 Noise in Communication Systems
• The normalized or standardized Gaussian density function of a zero-
mean process is obtained by assuming unit variance.

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 WHITE NOISE
• It is generally accepted that noise is the result of the
random motion of electrons within components in
electronic systems.
• The greater the temperature of a component, the
greater the random motion of electrons within the
component, and this causes an increased
instantaneous noise current to be present within the
component. With an increase in noise current, the
noise power also increases.

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 White Noise
• The PSD of thermal noise is uniform (or constant)
for all frequencies of interest in communication
systems, for this reason thermal noise is often
referered to as “White Noise”. Because color
white contains all colors of visible spectrum.
• The PSD of thermal or white noise is given by

(1.42)

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 WHITE NOISE
• Behavior of Gn(f) is same for all frequencies.
• Unwanted signals at all frequency components
present with equal measure.

WHITE NOISE
• ACF of White Noise can be calculated as:

No (1.43)
Rn    F Gn  f    t 
1

2
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 White Noise

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 Autocorrelation of White Noise
• Thus white noise is completely uncorrelated to its shifted
copy (No matter how small the shift is). Thus any two
samples of noise process are completely uncorrelated.
• Since any two samples of noise are completely
uncorrelated, they must be independent. ( since process is
Gaussian).
• This means that the noise effects each symbol completely
independently. A channel with such a noise is called a
“Memoryless channel”
• Since noise is added to the desired signal we call the noise
“additive”.
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 Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN)

• Since thermal noise is “additive” and “white”

and “Gaussian”, we refer to it as Additve
White Guassian Noise or AWGN.
• We will assume that noise has zero mean.
Thus noise pdf will be determined completely
by its standard deviation σ. (since µ=0).

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Muhammad
Adeel Asim
 1.6 Signal Transmission through Linear
Systems
• A system can be characterized equally well in the time domain
or the frequency domain, techniques will be developed in
both domains

• The system is assumed to be linear and time invariant.

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 Impulse Response

• The linear time invariant system or network is characterized in the time

domain by an impulse response h (t ),to an input unit impulse (t)
y (t )  h(t ) when x(t )   (t )
(1.45)
• The response of the network to an arbitrary input signal x (t )is found by
the convolution of x (t )with h (t )


 x( )h(t   )d

y (t )  x(t )  h(t ) (1.46)

• The system is assumed to be causal, which means that there can be no
output prior to the time, t =0,when the input is applied.
• The convolution integral can be expressed as:

y (t )   x ( (1.47a)
) h (t   ) d 
0
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 Frequency Transfer Function
• The frequency-domain output signal Y (f )is obtained by taking
the Fourier transform
(1.48) Y( f ) X ( f ) H( f )

• Frequency transfer function or the frequency response is

defined as: Y(f )
H(f)
(1.49) X(f)
H ( f )  H ( f ) e j ( f )
(1.50)

• The phase response is defined as:

 1 Im { H ( f )}
(1.51)  ( f )  tan
R e{ H ( f )}
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 Random Processes and Linear Systems

• If a random process forms the input to a time-

invariant linear system, the output will also be a
random process.

• The input power spectral density GX (f )and the

output power spectral density GY (f )are related as:

2
GY ( f )  GX(1.53)
( f ) H( f )

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 Distortionless Transmission
What is the required behavior of an ideal transmission line?

• The output signal from an ideal transmission line may have some time
delay and different amplitude than the input
• It must have no distortion—it must have the same shape as the input.
• For ideal distortionless transmission:

Output signal in time domain y (t )  Kx(t  t0(1.54)

)

Output signal in frequency domain

Y ( f )  KX ( f )e(1.55)
j 2 ft0

System Transfer Function H ( f )  Ke  j 2 ft0 (1.56)

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 What is the required behavior of an ideal transmission line?
• Eq. (1.56) indicates that:

1. The overall system response must have a constant

magnitude response.

2. The phase shift must be linear with frequency.

3. All of the signal’s frequency components must also

arrive with identical time delay in order to add up
correctly.

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 DISTORTIONLESS TRANSMISSION
• The 3rd point in previous slide is important because time
delay t0 is related to the phase shift  and the radian
frequency  = 2f by:
 (radians)
t0 (sec onds) 
2 f (radians / sec ond )

• If each received frequency component is received with a

different time delay, then these freq. components won’t
add up in the same fashion, in which they were
generated. This is called signal distortion.
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 DISTORTIONLESS TRANSMISSION
• What should be the value of delay for a particular
frequency component?
• Another characteristic often used to measure delay
distortion of a signal is called envelope delay or group
delay: 1 d ( f )
( f )  
2 df

• The above equation shows that, a particular frequency

component ‘f’ should have delay of Ƭ(f) seconds.

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 Ideal Filters (as in eq. (1.56))
• For the ideal low-pass filter transfer function with bandwidth Wf = fu
hertz can be written as:

H ( f )  H ( f ) e  j ( f )
(1.58)
Where

1 for | f |  f u
H( f ) 
0 for | f |  f u
(1.59)

 j ( f )  j 2 ft0
e e
(1.60)

Figure1.11 (b) Ideal low-pass filter

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 Ideal Filters
• The impulse response of the ideal low-pass filter:

h(t )  1{H ( f )}

 

H ( f )e j 2 ft df

fu

 
 fu
e  j 2 ft0 e j 2 ft df

fu

 
 fu
e j 2 f (t t0 ) df

sin 2 f u (t  t0 )
 2 fu
2 f u (t  t0 )
 2 f u sin c 2 f u (t  t0 )
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 Ideal Filters

• For the ideal band-pass filter  For the ideal high-pass filter
transfer function transfer function

Figure1.11 (a) Ideal band-pass filter Figure1.11 (c) Ideal high-pass filter
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 Realizable Filters
• The simplest example of a realizable low-pass filter; an RC
filter 1 1  j ( f )
H(f)  (1.63) e
1  j 2 f   1  (2 f   ) 2

Figure 1.13
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 Realizable Filters
Phase characteristic of RC filter

Figure 1.13

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 Realizable Filters
• There are several useful approximations to the ideal
low-pass filter characteristic and one of these is the
Butterworth filter 1
Hn ( f )  n 1
2n
1  ( f / fu )
(1.65)

 Butterworth filters are

popular because they are
the best approximation to
the ideal, in the sense of
maximal flatness in the
filter passband.

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 Bandwidth Of Digital Data
Baseband versus Bandpass
• An easy way to translate the spectrum of a low-
pass or baseband signal x(t) to a higher
frequency is to multiply or heterodyne the
baseband signal with a carrier wave cos 2fct
• xc(t) is called a double-sideband (DSB)
modulated signal
xc(t) = x(t) cos 2fct (1.70)
• From the frequency shifting theorem
Xc(f) = 1/2 [X(f-fc) + X(f+fc) ] (1.71)
• Generally the carrier wave frequency is much
higher than the bandwidth of the baseband
signal
fc >> fm and therefore WDSB = 2fm

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 Bandwidth Dilemma

• Theorems of
communication and
information theory are
based on the assumption
of strictly bandlimited
channels

• The mathematical
description of a real signal
does not permit the signal
to be strictly duration
limited and strictly
bandlimited.

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 The Dilemma

For all bandlimited spectra, the

waveforms are not realizable, and for all
realizable waveforms, the absolute
bandwidth is infinite.

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 Different Bandwidth Criteria

(a) Half-power bandwidth.

(b) Equivalent rectangular or
noise equivalent
bandwidth.
(c) Null-to-null bandwidth.
(d) Fractional power
containment bandwidth.
(e) Bounded power spectral
density.
(f) Absolute bandwidth.

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 • Noise Equivalent Bandwidth:

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