Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Chapter one
Electric Circuit Fundamentals

By
Ahunim A.
ahunim@[Link]
1
 Outlines
Electric Circuit Fundamentals

1.1 Introduction to Electrical Quantities

1.1.1 Atoms and its structures
1.2 Electric Current
1.3 Electric Voltage

2
 Atoms and Its Structures
 A basic understanding of the fundamental concepts of current &
voltage requires a degree of familiarization with atoms and its
structure
 Atom
 The smallest unit of matter that retains the identity of the substance.
 Atoms of all elements have the same basic structure.
 Atoms of different elements have different number of electrons, protons
and neutrons.
 It is composed of two regions
 Nucleus:- the center of the atom that contains the mass of the atom
 Electron cloud:- region that surrounds the nucleus that containing most of the space
in the atom
3
Cont’d…

4
 Cont’d…
 The three subatomic particles are:
 Proton:- positively charged subatomic particles
 Neutrons:- neutrally charged subatomic particles
 Electrons:- subatomic particle with a negative charge and relatively no
mass, 9.11x10-18 g
 The nucleus contains two of the three subatomic particles
 Protons
 Electrons
 The electron cloud contains the third subatomic particle
 Electrons
5
 Cont’d…
 Protons and neutrons live compacted in the tiny positively charged
nucleus accounting for most of the mass of the atom
 The negatively charged electrons are small and have a relatively small
mass but occupy a large volume of space outside the nucleus
 In all neutral atoms the number of electrons is equal to the number of
protons
 The mass of electron is
9.11x1028 g
 The mass of protons and neutron is
1.672x1024 g
 The mass of the proton is approximately1836 time that of the neutron

6
Cont’d…

7
 Cont’d…

 Different atoms will have various number of electrons in the

concentric shell about the nucleus
 The first shell, which is closest to the nucleus, can contain only two
electrons
 The second shell, can contain a maximum of eight electrons
 The third shell, can contain a maximum of eighteen electrons
 The general equation used to determine the number of electrons:
 2n 2
Where: n is the number of shells (n = k, l, m,…)

8
 Cont’d…
 Each shell is then broken down into subshell where:
 The first subshell can contain a maximum of two electrons
 The second subsheel can contain a maximum of six electrons
 The third subshell can contain a maximum of ten electrons
 The fourth subshell can contain a maximum of fourteen electrons
 The subshell are usually denoted by the letter, s, p, d and f

9
 1.2 Electric Current
 Electric current results from the movement of electric charges or
the net flow of charge across any cross-section of the conductor.
 If 6 . 242 x 10 18 electrons drift at uniform velocity through the
imaginary circular cross section in 1 second, the flow of charge, or
current, is said to be 1 ampere.
 The charge associated with one electron can then be determine
from

 The current in amperes can be calculated using the equation:

10
 Cont’d…

 Determine the time required for 4 x10 electrons to pass

16

through the imaginary surface if the current is 5mA.

 Calculate

11
 Voltage
A potential difference of 1 volt (V) exists b/n two points if 1 joule
(J) of energy is exchanged in moving 1 coulomb (C) of charge b/n
the two points.

The unit of measurement is Volt

In general, the potential difference b/n two points is determined
by:

12
 Cont’d…
Example : find the potential difference b/n two points in an
electrical system if 60J of energy are expended by a charge of 20 C
b/n these two points.
Solution:

13
 Chapter two
DC Circuit Analysis
2.1 Electric Circuit and its Elements
 Usually we are interested in transferring energy or communication
signals from one point to another.
 To do this, we often require an interconnection of electrical
components.
 An electric circuit:- is an interconnection of electrical
elements/components
 Electrical elements:- are terminal devices that are completely
characterized by the current through the element and/or the voltage
across it.
14
 Cont’d…
Circuit Elements divided into:
◦ Active elements:- is capable of generating energy, eg. Voltage and current
sources
◦ Passive elements:- elements can not generate energy (absorb or store
energy), eg resistors, inductors, capacitors,..
Electric sources
◦ DC and AC sources
◦ Independent and Dependent sources
Direct current(DC):- has uniform direction of flow and amount
(Voltage) of electricity

15
 Cont’d…
Alternating current (AC):- has direction of flow and amount
(voltage) of electricity that change periodically.

Independent sources
i. Independent voltage sources:- a two terminal element that
maintains a specified voltage b/n its terminals regardless of the
current through it.

16
 Cont’d…

ii. Independent current source:- a two terminal element that

maintains a specified current regardless of the voltage across its
terminals.

Dependent sources:- generate a voltage or current that is determined

by a voltage or current at a specified location in the circuit

17
 Resistance

The flow of charge through any material encounters an opposing

force similar in many respects to mechanical friction
The opposition due to the collisions b/n electrons and b/n electrons
and other atoms in the material, which converts electrical energy in
to another form of energy such as heat, is called the resistance of
the material.
The SI unit of measurement is Ohm (Ω)
circuit symbol
A conductor designed to have a specific resistance is called a
Resistor
18
 Cont’d…

The resistance of any material with a uniform cross sectional area

is determined by the following four factors:
◦ Material
◦ Length
◦ Cross-sectional area
◦ Temperature
Material
◦ conductors that permit a generous flow of charge with little external
pressure will have low resistance levels.
◦ Insulators will have high resistance characteristics

19
 Cont’d…

Length
◦ The longer the path the charge must pass through, the higher the resistance
level
◦ Resistance is directly proportional to the length of the material
Cross-sectional area
◦ The larger the area, the lower the resistance
◦ Resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the material
Temperature
◦ As the temperature of most conductors increases, the increased motion of the
particles within the molecular structure makes it increasingly difficult for
“free” carriers to pass through, and the resistance level increase.

20
 Cont’d…

At room temperature, the resistance is related to other three factors

by:
Where ρ - characteristics of the material called resistivity
l- length of the material
A- cross-sectional area
21
 Cont’d…

Resistivity of common materials

Material Resistivity (Ω/m)
Silver 1 . 64 x 10 8

Copper 1 . 72 x 10 8

Aluminum 2 . 8 x 10 8

Gold 2 . 45 x 10 8

Iron 1 . 23 x 10 7

Lead 2 . 2 x 10 7

etc

22
 Cont’d…

Example :-calculate the resistance of an aluminum wire that is 2m

long and of circular cross section with a diameter of 1.5 mm.
Solution :
2  d 2  (1 . 5 x10  3 ) 2
A  r    1 . 767 x10  6 m 2
4 4

From the table the resistance of aluminum is 2 . 8 x 10 8

  m

 l 2 . 8 x10  8 x 2
R  6
 31 . 69 m 
A 1 . 767 x10

Exercise: a copper bus bar is shown in figure below, calculate the

length of the bar that will produce a resistance of 0.5 ohm

23
 Conductance

Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric

current; it is measured in Siemens (S)

1 I 1 A. 1 A

G     
R V l l l

A
wher e   conductivi ty of the material (in S/m)

24
 Ohms Law
Ohm’s law states that the voltage V across a resistor is directly
proportional to the current I flowing through the resistor.
V  IR
Then ;
V
I 
R
V
R 
I

Example : calculate the resistance of a 60 W bulb if a current of 500 mA

results from an allied voltage of 120 V.
Solution: R 
V

120 V
 240 
I 500 x10  3 A
25
 Resistor color code

Some resistors are physically large enough to have their values

printed on them.
 Other resistance are too small to have their values printed on
them
For such small resistors, color coding provides a way of
determining the value of resistance.
The color coding consists of three, four, five or six bands of color
around the resistor

26
 Cont’d…

Each color has the numerical values as indicated in the table below
The color bands are always read from the end that has the bands
closest to it.
The first and second bands represent the first and second digits
respectively
The third band –power of ten multiplier or multiplying factor if gold
or silver
Fourth band ---manufacturer’s tolerance (which is an indication of the
precision by which the resistor was made)
◦ If the fourth band is omitted the tolerance is assumed to be
Fifth band—a reliability factor, which gives the percentage of failure
per 1000 hours of use.
27
Cont’d…

28
Cont’d…

29
Cont’d…

30
 Cont’d…

Exercise :- find the range in which a resistor having the following

color bands must exist to satisfy the manufacturer’s tolerance.
◦ 1st band 2nd band 3rd band 4th band 5th band
Gray Red Black Gold Brown

31
 Measurements of electrical variables

 The most common measurements in electrical engineering are

those of resistances, voltages and currents.
Voltmeter :- instrument used to measure voltage
Ammeter:- instrument used to measure current
Ohmmeter:- used to measure resistance
 It is common these days to have the three instruments combined into one
instrument known as a multimeter, which may be analog or digital
 Digital multimeters are designed to measure electrical quantities such as:
resistance, voltage and current.
 Digital meters give an output in numbers usually on a liquid crystal
display.
32
 Cont’d…

 Ammeters are used to measure the flow of electrical current in a

circuit.
 Measuring devices should not affect the circuit being studied.
 The internal resistance of ammeter should be very low and
ammeters must always be connected in series in a circuit.

33
 Cont’d…

Voltmeters are used to measure the potential difference between

two points.
 The voltmeter should not affect the circuit.
 So due to its high resistance, the voltmeter should connect in
parallel with the current.

34
 Cont’d…

ohmmeters are used to measure the resistance of the material

It must be connected across the element as shown in fig. below

35
 Circuit simplification and analysis

To determine the current or voltage in a circuit that contains

resistors, the total resistance must be first calculated.
Resistors can be combined in series or parallel
Series circuit
 Two elements are in series if
They have only one terminal in common
The common point b/n the two elements is not connected to another
current carrying element

36
 Cont’d…

Since the charge has only path to flow through, the current that
pass through each resistor is the same
I  I 1  I 2  ...  I n
◦ The current is the same through series elements
The supplied voltage in series circuit is the sum of the voltaged
drop in each elements.
E  V1  V 2  ...  V n
The voltage drop across each element can be obtained using ohm’s
law
i.e. V1  I 1 R1 , V 2  I 2 R 2 , V 3  I 3 R 3 ,..., V n  I n R n

37
 Cont’d…

Then the E  V1  V 2  ...  V n becomes

E  V1  V 2  ...  V n

IR T  I1R1  I 2 R 2  ....  I n R n , but I  I 1  I 2  ...  I n

IR T  I R1  I R 2  ....  IR n

IR T  I R 1  R 2  ....  R n 
 RT  R1  R 2  ....  R n

The power delivered to each resistor

V can be determined as: 2
2
P1  V 1 I 1  I 1 R 1  1
R1

The power
P delivered
 E I (byW the
) source
del 1

Then, the power delivered by the sources is equal to the sum of

the power
Pdel consumed
P  P by each
 ...
1  Pelement 2 n

38
 Example

For the network given below

a. Find the total resistance
b. Calculate the source current
c. Determine the voltage V1, V2 and V3
d. Calculate the power dissipated by R1, R2 and R3
e. Determine the power delivered by the source and compare to the
sum of the power levels of part (d)

39
Cont’d…

40
 Voltage divider rule

In a series ckt, the voltage across the resistive elements will divide
as the magnitude of the resistance levels.

The total resistance and current are

RT  R1  R 2  ...  R n

and
E
I 
RT 41
 Cont’d…

.
.
 E  R
Vn  IR n    Rn  n .E
 RT  RT
Hence
Rx
Vx  .E . . . vol tage divider rule
RT

42
 Example

Using the voltage divider rule, determine the voltage V1 and V3

for the series circuit given below.

43
Parallel circuit

44
 Methods of Analysis dc ckts
I. Mesh Analysis
Steps :
1. Assign a distinct current in the clockwise/anticlockwise direction to each
independent, closed loop of the network
2. Indicate the polarities within each loop for each resistor as determined by the
assumed direction of loop current for that loop
3. Apply KVL around each closed loop in the clockwise/anticlockwise direction.
 If a resistor has two or more assumed currents through it, the total current through the resistor is the
assumed current of the loop in which KVL is being applied, plus the assumed current of the other
loops passing through in the same direction, minus the assumed currents through in the opposite
direction.
4. Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equations for the assumed loop currents.

45
 Cont’d…

Example : Find the current through each branch of the network

given below.

Solution: Steps 1 and 2 are as indicated in the circuit below

46
 Cont’d…

Step 3: KVL is applied around each closed loop in the clockwise

direction.

47
 Cont’d…

Step 4: Solving the above two equations

48
 II. Nodal Analysis

Nodal analysis employ kirchhoff’s current law

A node is defined as a junction of two or more branches.
If we define one node of any network as a reference, the
remaining nodes of the network will all have a fixed potential
relative to this reference.
The nodal analysis method is applied as follows:
1. Determine the number of nodes within the network
2. Pick a reference node, and label each remaining node with a
subscripted value of voltage: V1, V2, etc
3. Apply KCL at each node except the reference
4. Solve the resulting equations for the nodal voltages
49
 Cont’d…

Example: Apply nodal analysis to the network of the figure below

 Steps 1 and 2: the network has two nodes, as shown in figure

below
 The lower node is defined as the reference node at ground potential
and the other node as V1, the voltage from node 1 to ground.

50
 Cont’d…

Step 3: I1 and I2 are defined as leaving the node and kirchhoff’s

current law is applied as follows:

The current I2 and I1 is related to the nodal voltage V1 by Ohm’s

law

51
Cont’d…

52
 Cont’d…

The minus sign indicates simply that the current I1 has a direction
opposite to that appearing in the figure.

53
 Cont’d…

Exercise : Determine the nodal voltage for the network given below

54
 Superposition Theorem

The current through, or voltage across, an element in a linear bilateral

networks is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents or voltages produced
independently by each source.
The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more
than one independent source by calculating the contribution of each
independent source separately
Steps to be followed:
[Link] off all independent sources except one source. Find the output
(voltage or current) due to that active source using nodal or mesh analysis.
[Link] step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
[Link] the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions
due to the independent sources.

55
 Cont’d…

Two things have to be keep in mind:

When we say turn off all other independent sources:
 Independent voltage sources are replaced by 0 V (short circuit)
and
 Independent current sources are replaced by 0 A (open circuit).
Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit
variables.

56
 Cont’d…

Example :Find v in the circuit in figure 1 using superposition

theorem.

Let, v1 and v2 are the contributions of two sources 12V voltage source and
6A current source.
According to linearity we can write,
                                 v = v1 + v2
57
 Cont’d…

As per rule we will find only one independent contribution at a time
and we set the all sources turned off.
To obtain v1 we set current source open circuit or 0A as figure below  .

Applying KVL we get in the loop,

                                   -12 + 16i1 + 8i1 = 0
                                or  i1 = 0.5A
So,  v1 = i18 = 4V OR, We can find out the value of v1 using
voltage divider rule,
                     v1 = {8/(16+8)} 12 = 4V
58
 Cont’d…

To obtain v2, we set voltage source short circuit as figure shown in figure below
or 0V.

 Now using current divider rule we can find i 3,

                         i3  = {16/(8+16)} 6 = 4A

 Thus, v2 = 8i3 = 32V
 Finally,      v = v1 + v2 = 4 + 32 = 36V

59
 Cont’d…

Exercise : using superposition, determine the current through the

4 ohm resistor of figure below

60
 Thevenin’s Theorem
It states that any two terminal, linear bilateral dc network can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of voltage source
(called thevenin voltsge, Eth) and a series resistor ( called thevenin
reistance, Rth)

61
 Cont’d…

Procedures
1. Remove that portion of the network across which the Thevenin
equivalent ckt is to be found
2. Mark the terminals of the remaining two terminal network
3. Calculate Rth by first setting all sources to zero (i.e voltage sources are
replaced by short ckt, and current sources by open)
4. Calculate Eth by first returning all sources to their original posution
and finding the open ckt voltage b/n the marked terminals.
5. Draw the Thevinin equivalent ckt with the portion of the ckt
previously removed replaced b/n the terminals of the ckt.

62
 Cont’d…

Example: find the Thevinin equivalent ckt for the network in

the shaded area of the bridge network

Solution : Step 1 and 2 are shown in figure below

63
 Cont’d…

Step 3, finding Rth

64
 Cont’d…

Step 4: Finding Eth

The voltage V1 and V2 can be determined using voltage divider

rule as:

65
 Cont’d…
Applying KVL to the top loop results

Step 5: construct the final ckt

Exercise: Calculate the current

through R3 in the circuit shown
below
66
 Norton’s Theorem

Any two terminal linear bilateral dc network can be replaced by an

equivalent ckt consisting of a current source and a parallel resistor

Procedures:
1. Remove that portion of the network across which the Norton equivalent ckt is
found
2. Mark the terminals of the remaining two terminal network
3. Calculate RN, by first setting all sources to zero, i.e since RN=Rth, the
procedure and values obtained using the approach described for Thevinin’s
theorem will determine the proper value of RN.
67
 Cont’d…
4. Calculate IN by first returning all sources to their original position and then
finding the short circuit current b/n the marked terminals
5. Draw the Norton equivalent ckt with the portion of the circuit previously
removed replaced b/n the terminals of the equivalent ckt

 The Norton and Thevinin equivalent circuits can also be found

from each other by using source transformation.

68
 Cont’d…
Example: find the Norton equivalent circuit for the
network in the shaded area of figure below.

Solution:
Steps 1 and 2 are shown in fig. below

69
 Cont’d…
Step 3:

Step 4:

70
 Cont’d…

Step 5:

The thevinin equivalent circuit can be

obtained as:

71
 Cont’d…

Exercise: Find the Norton equivalent ckt for the portion of

the network to the left of a-b in figure below

72