Form and Function
Dr.VMS
Form and Meaning
Message - concept - meaning - what
Method - manner - form - how
Form and function
There is no one-to-one relationship between a particular
function (writing, drawing, word processing, etc.) and the
object used (pencil, computer) to carry out that function.
in language there is a lack of a one-to-one relationship
between the various forms we encounter and the functions
they perform.
A particular function may be performed by different forms.
Realizations of the Subject
‘Who or what carried out the action denoted by the
verb?’
‘Who or what is this sentence about?’
NPs functioning as Subject
[NP The hedgehog] ate the cream cake.
[NP A rat] bit my toe.
[NP This shoe] hurts me.
[NP Academics] never lie.
PPs functioning as Subject
[PP Under the stairs] was a safe area to be during the
war.
[PP Outside the fridge] is not a good place to keep
milk.
[PP After Saturday] would be a good time to go away
for a few days.
[PP Between eleven and midnight] suits me alright.
AP and AdvP functioning as Subject
AP functioning as Subject
[AP Restless] is what I would call him.
AdvP functioning as Subject
[AdvP Cautiously] is how I would suggest you do it.
Finite clauses functioning as Subject
[That he will go to New York soon] is obvious.
[Because he is generous] doesn’t mean that he is rich.
[What the terrorists said] puzzled the police.
[Why she consented] remains a mystery.
To-infinitive clauses functioning as Subject
with a Subject of their own
[For Judith to buy that house] would spell disaster.
[For us to understand the issues] requires a major
mental effort.
[For Janet to go to College] would be a good idea.
[For Karl to visit art galleries] would not be desirable.
To-infinitive clauses functioning as Subject
without a Subject of their own
) [To be a good teacher] is more difficult than people
think
[To see her] is to love her
[To surrender our arms] will seem cowardly.
[To break down this fence] could lead to a conflict
with the neighbours
-ing participle clauses functioning as
Subject with a Subject of their own
Pete breaking the rules] is unacceptable.
[Students walking on the roof] poses a safety risk.
[Damien fooling around] embarrasses his friends.
[George buying all those books] will cost his father a
fortune.
-ing participle clauses functioning as Subject
with a Subject of their own
without a Subject of their own
[Going on holiday] always creates tensions.
[Running a business] is hard work.
[Swimming in this lake] will make you ill.
[Refusing to help the needy] is selfish.
Small Clauses functioning as Subject
[The kitchen free of cockroaches] is a welcome
prospect
Realisations of the Direct Object
Direct Objects are usually constituents which refer to
an entity that can be said to undergo the action
denoted by the verb.
A simple way of determining what is the Direct Object
in a particular sentence is to ask ‘Who or what is
affected by the action denoted by the verb?’
Eric lost his keys yesterday
What is affected by the process of losing?’
the answer is his keys. This NP is therefore the DO of
the sentence
Realisations of the Direct Object
Direct Objects can be realised by the following range
of phrases and clauses:
Noun Phrases,
Prepositional Phrases,
finite clauses and nonfinite clauses.
NPs functioning as Direct Object
Sarah admires [NP the President].
Ralph enjoys [NP her company].
William lit [NP the barbecue].
Nina described [NP the event].
PPs functioning as Direct Object
Speaker A: Where will the new discotheque be built?
Speaker B: Where will the new discotheque be built?
Speaker A: Are you going on holiday before or after
Easter?
Speaker B: I prefer [PP before Easter
Finite clauses functioning as Direct Object
That-clauses functioning as Direct Object
The government believes [that the voters are stupid].
She admits [that she ignored the red light].
Maggie doubts [that her boyfriend will ever change].
We regret [that we appointed you].
Finite Wh-clauses functioning as Direct Object
He knows [what she means].
He explained [who would be in charge of the
investigation].
I don’t remember [why Paul said that].
They finally decided [where they will send their child
to school].
To-infinitive clauses functioning as Direct Object
with a Subject of their own:
Ann considers [Helen to be an excellent director].
They believe [the tabloid newspapers to contain
nothing but smut].
without a Subject of their own:
They expect [to leave the country within twenty-four
hours].
She proposed [to open a restaurant in London].
without a Subject of their own, introduced
by a Wh-word
He forgot [what to say to the examiners].
The dentist couldn’t decide [who to see next].
Bare infinitive clauses functioning as Direct Object
We saw [the sun rise].
Rick could hear [his tutor rage with anger].
She made [her boyfriend cry].
I let [the situation pass].
ing participle clauses functioning as Direct
Object
with a Subject of their own:
I heard [Jamie singing in the bath].
The witness saw [someone running away].
without a Subject of their own
She abhors [eating meat].
Willy intended [registering for the exams].
-ed participle clauses functioning as Direct
Object
We had [the prisoners jailed].
She watched [the ship moored].
Small clauses functioning as Direct Object
Martin considers [Tim a creep]. (1/4(16) of Chapter 4)
Larry judges [the Head of Department a genius].
Phil deems [Henry foolish]. (1/4(17) of Chapter 4)
NPs functioning as Indirect Object
She told [NP her brother] a lie.
Gertrude gave [NP her friend] a birthday present.
We sent [NP the committee] an angry letter
The curator of the museum showed [NP the party]
some rare paintings
Wh-clauses functioning as Indirect Object
Sean told [whoever wanted to hear it] his story
AdvPs functioning as Adjunct
He cleaned the house [AdvP quite cheerfully].
[AdvP Officially], the company denied all
responsibility.
He [AdvP urgently] needed to see a doctor.
They [AdvP repeatedly] had their car stolen.
PPs functioning as Adjunct
Otto cooked his evening meal [PP in a rush].
We met [PP outside Paris].
Frank cut the bread [PP with a penknife].
They always drink sherry [PP before dinner].
NPs functioning as Adjunct
Helen discovered the Italian restaurant [NP
yesterday].
The crisis began [NP last year].
He resigned [NP the month before last].
He wants me to do it [NP this second].
Finite clauses functioning as Adjunct
They will be cooking the meal, [when we arrive].
[While Francis was watching tv], Paul was peeling the
potatoes.
[Since he never used his card], the library cancelled
his membership.
We’ll go to Paris, [if you promise not to smoke].
To-infinitive clauses functioning as Adjunct
with a Subject of their own
We need some music, [ for us to enjoy the evening
Catherine will need to work harder, [ for her to reach her life’s
ambition]
without a Subject of their own:
[So as to move about more easily], Robert bought himself a
car.
You will need to travel to the United States, [to hear him
lecture].
[To produce an essay every two weeks], you will have to work
very hard.
Bare infinitive clauses functioning as Adjunct
Rather than sell the painting], Ike preferred to destroy
it.
Ray wants to travel by train, [sooner than fly].
-ing participle clauses functioning as Adjunct
with a Subject of their own:
[The streets being completely deserted], Jackie
preferred to take a cab.
Sally stared out of the window, [her thoughts drifting
away dreamily].
without a Subject of their own
[Working on his essay late], Tom was quickly
becoming tired
[Standing on a table], Dawn addressed the crowd.
-ed participle clauses functioning as Adjunct
with a Subject of their own
[The attack averted], the people of the town could come out
of hiding.
We were all excited, [the plan accepted by the government].
without a Subject of their own
Meg joined Amnesty International, [convinced that this
would benefit political prisoners].
[Formulated clearly], this statement will cause no problems.
She died in her car, [suffocated by exhaust fumes].
Small clauses functioning as Adjunct
He is from a wealthy background, [his father a
businessman].
[The doctor ill], we had no-one to look after my sister.
She went back to her homeland, [her mind free of
hate].
[The police unrepentant], we took them to court.
Thank you
