FOUNDRY PRACTICE

- types of furnaces most commonly used in foundries are

(1) cupolas,
(2) direct fuel-fired furnaces,
(3) crucible furnaces,
(4) electric-arc furnaces, and
(5) induction furnaces.
- selection of the melting unit is one of the most important decisions foundries
must make
 FOUNDRY PRACTICE
Factors to be considered for proper selection of furnace:
1. The temperature required to melt the metal or alloy.
2. The melting rate and quantity of molten metal required.
3. The required quality of the melt and subsequent final product.
4. The economy of installation, operation and maintenance.
5. Environmental and waste disposal requirements.
 FOUNDRY PRACTICE
Classification of furnaces according to the type of lining:
1. Acidic lined furnaces (e.g., SiO₂)
2. Basic lined furnaces (e.g., MgO, MgCO₃, CaO)
Lining materials are characterized by:
- Refractoriness.
- High wear resistance.
- Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
- High resistance to thermal shock.
- Heat insulation.
- passive towards molten metal, furnace gases and slag (chemically inert)
 TYPES OF FURNACES
a) Cupolas
- melting device used in foundries to melt cast iron, some bronzes and even
aluminum when attention is paid to keep the temperature low.
- size of a cupola is expressed in diameters and can range from 0.5 to 4.0 m
while the stack height is between 6 to 11 m.
- bottom of the cylinder is fitted with doors which swing down and out.

- The top, where gases escape can be opened or fitted with a cap to prevent
rain from entering the cupola.
 Cupola construction

1. Cylindrical Shell
It is the outermost part of the Cupola Furnace.
It is made up of steel sheet and other parts of
this furnace are present inside this shell.
2. Legs
At the bottom of the Cupola Furnace are legs
provided to support it.
3. Cast Iron Door
This cast iron is present at the bottom of the
furnace above the legs which is closed by the
support of the legs.
4. Sand Bed
Above the cast iron door sand bed is present. It
is in tapered form so that the melted iron can
flow out easily from its top.
 Cupola construction
1. Slag Hole

- present at the opposite side of the hole from which melted

iron comes out. It is present near the elevated part of sand bed.
This slag hole is used to remove slag formed on melted iron due
to impurities.

2. Air Pipes and Tuyers

The air pipe is provided to allow the air to reach inside the
furnace. Inside the furnace wind belt is present. The air entering
from the air pipes reaches each part of the wind belt and in the
wind belt there are holes which are called tuyers. Air reaches
the furnace through this tuyers and will help in combustion.

3. Spark Arrester or Cap of Furnace

It is present at the top of the furnace. When gases are released

out of the furnace, some burning particles are present in it
which can harm the environment. So, this cap or spark arrester
is used to capture the burning particles and only allow the gas
to pass to the environment.
Cupola construction
8. Charging Door
It is present near the top of the furnace. It is used
to supply charge to the furnace. The charges in
this furnace are Pig Iron, Coke and Lime Stone.
Coke is used for combustion; pig iron is the
material that is to be melt and lime stone is used
as a flux. This flux mix with impurities to form slag
and this slag comes out of the slag hole.
9. Well
The part of the furnace from the send bed to
lower part of tuyers is known as Well. It is named
as well as in this part molten iron is stored and
then the molten iron comes out of the tapping
hole.
10. Tuyers Zone
The part of the furnace in which the wind belt and
tuyers are present is known as Tuyers Zone.
Cupola construction
11. Combustion Zone

- also called as oxidizing zone. It is located between the

upper of the tuyeres and a theoretical level above it. The
total height of this zone is normally from 15 cm to 30 cm.
The combustion actually takes place in this zone by
consuming the free oxygen completely from the air blast
and generating tremendous heat. The heat generated in this
zone is sufficient enough to meet the requirements of other
zones of cupola. The heat is further evolved also due to
oxidation of silicon and manganese. A temperature of about
1540°C to 1870°C is achieved in this zone. Few exothermic
reactions take place in this zone these are represented as: 

C + O2 CO2 + Heat

Si + O2 SiO2 + Heat

2Mn + O2 2MnO + Heat

Cupola construction
12. Reducing Zone

Reducing zone of Cupola is also known as the protective

zone which is located between the upper level of the
combustion zone and the upper level of the coke bed. In
this zone, CO2 is changed to CO through an endothermic
reaction, as a result of which the temperature falls from
combustion zone temperature to about 1200°C at the
top of this zone. The important chemical reaction takes
place in this zone which is given as under.

CO2 + C (coke) 2CO + Heat

Nitrogen does not participate in the chemical reaction
occurring in his zone as it is also the other main
constituent of the upward moving hot gases. Because of
the reducing atmosphere in this zone, the charge is
protected against oxidation.
Cupola construction
13. Melting Zone
The lower layer of metal charge above
the lower layer of coke bed is termed
as melting zone of Cupola. The metal
charge starts melting in this zone and
trickles down through coke bed and
gets collected in the well. Sufficient
carbon content picked by the molten
metal in this zone is represented by the
chemical reaction given as under. In
this zone iron melts and this molten
iron comes out of the tap hole. The
temperature of this zone is very high
nearly 1600-degree Celsius.

3Fe + 2CO Fe3C + CO2

Cupola construction
14. Preheating Zone

In this zone the metal to be melted is

preheated, in this zone metal is heated to
about 1090 degrees Celsius. Preheating zone
starts from the upper end of the melting zone
and continues up to the bottom level of the
charging door. This zone contains a number of
alternate layers of coke bed, flux and metal
charge. The main objective of this zone is to
preheat the charges from room temperature to
about 1090°C before entering the metal charge
to the melting zone. The preheating takes
place in this zone due to the upward
movement of hot gases. During the preheating
process, the metal charge in solid form picks
up some sulphur content in this zone.
Cupola construction
15. Stack Zone

Gases formed in the furnace

after burning passes to the
environment through this zone.
In this zone, spark arrester is
present which prevent burning
particles to reach the
environment.
Working Principle of Cupola
Furnace
To begin a production run, called a 'cupola
campaign', the furnace is
charged with layers of coke and ignited with
torches. When the coke is ignited, air is
introduced to the coke bed through ports in
the sides called tuyeres.
When the coke is very hot, solid pieces of
metal are charged into the furnace
through the charging door. The metal is
alternated with additional layers of fresh
coke. Limestone (CaCO3) is added to act as a
flux. As the heat rises within the stack the
metal is melted.
Working Principle of Cupola Furnace
It drips down through the coke bed to
collect in a pool at the bottom, just
above the bottom doors. Some of the
carbon is picked up by the falling
droplets of molten metal which raises
the carbon content of the iron. Additions
to the molten iron such as ferro-
manganese, ferro-silicon, silicon carbide
and other alloying agents are used to
alter the molten iron to conform the
required composition. When the metal
level is sufficiently high in the well, the
cupola operator opens the "tap hole" to
let the metal flow into a ladle or other
container to hold the molten metal.
When slag will rise to the top of the
formed iron pool. The slag hole is
opened to permit the slag flow out.
 CUPOLA FURNACE
Advantages of Cupola Furnace
Disadvantages of Cupola Furnace

1. Simple in Construction.
1. Sometimes it is very hard
2. A wide range of materials can be melted.
to control the
3. Less floor space is required. temperature in this
4. Very skilled operators are not required. furnace.

5. It can be easily operated by low-skilled people. 2. Metal elements are

converted to their oxide,
6. Low cost of operation.
which is not suitable for
7. Low cost of maintenance. casting
8. Low cost of construction.
 Applications of Cupola Furnace

- mainly used to convert pig irons to molten irons.

- More types of cast irons are produced from this furnace-like
malleable and grey cast iron.
- The copper base alloy is also manufactured by this device
 b) Electric Arc Furnace

- Electric Arc Furnace means an extremely hot enclosed space, where heat is
produced by means of electrical arcing for melting certain metals such as scrap
steel without changing electro-chemical properties of the metal.
- Electric arc is produced between the electrodes. This electric arc is used for
melting the metal.
- The arc furnaces are used to produce mini steel structural bars and steel rods.
The electric furnace is in form of a vertical vessel of fire brick.
 b) Electric Arc Furnace
- The electric arc furnace is used to reduce
iron from iron ore.
- Heat is generated from an electric arc
between electrodes.
- Oxygen is blown into the furnace, and lime
and other materials are added to combine
with the impurities and form slag.
- Molten iron is extracted and poured out via
a tapping spout.
- It is then processed again in an electric arc
furnace to make steel – particularly special
quality steel.
 b) Electric Arc Furnace
- Generally, made in a cylindrical shape, but conical
shape furnaces are employed due to the
availability of large surface area per unit volume,
less power consumption, less radiation loss, and
reduction in melting point.
- arc chamber of the furnace consists of a suitable
acid or basic refractory lining supported on a metal
frame.
- The electrodes are held by a clamping mechanism
inside the furnace from the top or sides of the
chamber and are placed such that they can be
easily replaced or adjusted.
- A charge door is provided on the side of the
furnace shell through which the charge to be
heated is kept and molten metal is taken out.
 Electric Arc Furnace Electrodes
- type will depend upon conductivity, insolubility, mechanical
strength, non-reactiveness, etc.
- Generally, electrodes made up of carbon and graphite with a
diameter of 18-27 cm are usually employed.
- In the case of small furnaces, carbon electrodes are used for the
manufacturing of ferroalloys, aluminum phosphorous, etc.
- For electrochemical furnace and electrolytic production of
aluminum, self-baking electrodes are used.
 Types of Electric Arc Furnaces
i) Direct Electric Arc Furnace
- arc is formed between the electrodes
and the charge to be heated.
- the charge acts as another electrode.
- There are two carbon or graphite
electrodes and the arc is formed
between the electrode and charge at
two places.
- high temperatures can be obtained since
the arc is produced directly with the
charge to be heated, and also there will
be additional heat generation in the
charge due to the flow of current
through it.
 Types of Electric Arc Furnaces

i) Direct Electric Arc Furnace

- In the case of a single-phase arc furnace, two electrodes are placed vertically
from the top of the furnace into the charge.
- Whereas in the case of a three-phase arc furnace, three electrodes placed at
the corners of an equivalent triangle are used which produces three arcs, the
charge itself thus forms a star point.
- one of the important features of a direct arc furnace is that, due to the flow of
current in the charge, automatic stirring action is produced in the charge by
electromagnetic force set up by the current.
- This type of arc furnace is mostly used for the production of steel and is
advantageous as compared to the cupola method for the production of steel.
 Types of Electric Arc Furnaces
ii) Indirect Electric Arc Furnace
- In direct arc furnace, arc formed will
be in direct contact with the charge to
be heated. But in an indirect furnace,
the arc formed will be not in direct
contact with the charge.
- In an indirect furnace, the arc is
formed between two electrodes near
the charge, and heat produced by the
arc is transferred to the charge by
radiation.
- electrodes are projected through the
chamber at each end along the
horizontal axis.
 Types of Electric Arc Furnaces
ii) Indirect Electric Arc Furnace
- arc is formed by bringing the electrodes in contact for a very short time and then
withdrawing them back.
- Since there is no direct contact of the arc with the charge, temperatures obtained
will be lower than that of a direct arc furnace.
- Also, there is no inherent stirring action in charge due to the absence of current
flow and thus furnace must be rocked mechanically.
- heat produced in the charge is not only by radiation but also by conduction from
the refractory lining during rocking action.
- By varying arc length i.e., by varying the distance between electrodes, power
input to the furnace can be regulated.
- type of furnace is usually of single-phase and its size is limited.
- applications of indirect electric arc furnaces are melting of non-ferrous metals,
iron foundries where there is a need for molten metal, etc.
 Types of Electric Arc Furnaces

iii) Submerged Electric Arc Furnace

- electrodes are immersed in the
charge.
- used for the manufacture of
ferroalloys such as Fe-Mn, Si-Mn, Fe-
Si, Mg-Si and etc.
- The resistance offered by the charge
to the flow of current will generate
heat in it.
- The power to the furnace is
controlled by varying the applied
voltage or by varying arc length.
 Power Supply and Control of Arc Furnace

- usually of low voltage and high current.

- finds application mostly in the melting of ferrous or non-ferrous metals, for
this process large power is required due to which the current required will be
huge.
- The following are the reasons why low voltage high current is used for electric
arc furnaces:
 heat is proportional to the square of the current, hence high current is used.
 voltage to the furnace is limited due to insulation and safety considerations.
 By using low voltage and high current electrodes near the charge that
remains away from the roof, the life of the refractory lining in the furnace is
increased.
- power input to the furnace can be controlled by varying the voltage applied or
by varying the length of the arc which can be done by moving the electrodes.
 c) Induction Furnaces

- use alternating current passing

through a coil to develop a magnetic
field in the metal, and the resulting
induced current causes rapid heating
and melting of the metal.
- During induction, an electric current
is passed through a metal coil which
creates a magnetic field.
- When metal is introduced into the
magnetic field, an electrical current
passes through the metal and causes
it to heat.
 c) Induction Furnaces
- produce their heat cleanly, without combustion.
- Alternating electric current from an induction power unit flows into a furnace
and through a coil made of hollow copper tubing.
- The tubing allows the coil to be cooled by passing water through it in route to
a heat ex-change system.
- The coil creates an electromagnetic field that passes through the refractory
material and couples with the conductive metal charge inside the furnace.
- This induces electric current to flow inside the metal charge itself, which
produces heat that which can enable the metal to melt.
- Although some furnace surfaces may become hot enough to present a burn
hazard, with induction the charge is heated directly, not the furnace itself.
 c) Induction Furnaces
• When alternating current flows in a
conductor it produces alternating magnetic
flux. If conducting material (metal charge) is
placed within the flux path, emf is induced in
the material.
• The induced emf develops eddy currents
within the material. The power loss due to
such eddy currents appears as heat.
• The interaction between the emf and the
applied electrical charge produces a stirring
action in the molten material. The stirring
action is important since it serves to maintain
a uniform temperature throughout charge.
• This action of inducing emf in other material
due to alternating flux produced by a current
carrying conductor is a transformer action.
 c) Induction Furnaces
• The only difference between a transformer and
induction heating is that with a transformer,
electrical energy available in the secondary is
utilized outside the secondary as a load, whereas
with induction heating it is used to heat the
charge itself which acts as a short circuited
secondary.
• The electromagnetic force field causes a mixing
action to occur in the liquid metal.
• Also, since the metal does not come in direct
contact with the heating elements, the
environment in which melting takes place can be
closely controlled.
• All of this results in molten metals of high quality
and purity, and induction furnaces are used for
nearly any casting alloy when these
requirements are important.
• Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys are
common applications in foundry work.
 POURING, CLEANING, AND HEAT TREATMENT IN FURNACES
- Moving the molten metal from the melting furnace to the mold is sometimes
done using crucibles.
- More often, the transfer is accomplished by ladles of various kinds.
- These ladles receive the metal from the furnace and allow for convenient
pouring into the molds.
- Two common ladles are one for handling large volumes of molten metal using
an overhead crane, and the other a ‘‘two-man ladle’’ for manually moving and
pouring smaller amounts.
 PROBLEMS IN POURING
- oxidized molten metal can be introduced into the mold.

- Metal oxides reduce product quality, perhaps rendering the casting defective,
so measures are taken to minimize the entry of these oxides into the mold
during pouring.
- Filters are sometimes used to catch the oxides and other impurities as the
metal is poured from the spout, and fluxes are used to cover the molten metal
to retard oxidation.
- In addition, ladles have been devised to pour the liquid metal from the
bottom, since the top surface is where the oxides accumulate.
 CLEANING AND HEAT TRETMENT OF CASTINGS
- After the casting has solidified and been removed from the mold, a number of
additional steps are usually required.
* Cleaning (trimming, removing the core, surface cleaning, inspection, repair)
and heat treatment.
- Trimming involves removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting-line flash, fins,
chaplets, and any other excess metal from the cast part.
- In the case of brittle casting alloys and when the cross sections are relatively
small, these appendages on the casting can be broken off.
- Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hack-sawing, band-sawing, abrasive wheel
cutting, or various torch cutting methods are used.
 CLEANING AND HEAT TRETMENT OF CASTINGS
 If cores have been used to cast the part, they must be removed.
- Most cores are chemically bonded or oil-bonded sand, and they often fall out of
the casting as the binder deteriorates.
- In some cases, they are removed by shaking the casting, either manually or
mechanically.
- In rare instances, cores are removed by chemically dissolving the bonding agent
used in the sand core. Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out.
 Surface cleaning is most important in the case of sand casting.
- In many of the other casting methods, especially the permanent-mold processes,
this step can be avoided.
- Surface cleaning involves removal of sand from the surface of the casting and
otherwise enhancing the appearance of the surface.
- Methods used to clean the surface include tumbling, air-blasting with coarse sand
grit or metal shot, wire brushing, buffing, and chemical pickling.
 CLEANING AND HEAT TRETMENT OF
CASTINGS
- Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is needed to
detect their presence.
- Castings are often heat treated to enhance their properties,
either for subsequent processing operations such as
machining or to bring out the desired properties for
application of the part.
 Casting Defects
a) Misruns
- castings that solidify before
completely filling the mold cavity.
- Typical causes include
(1) fluidity of the molten metal is
insufficient,
(2) pouring temperature is too low,
(3) pouring is done too slowly, and/or
(4) cross-section of the mold cavity is
too thin.
 Casting Defects
b) Cold Shuts
- occur when two portions of the
metal flow together but there is a
lack of fusion between them due to
premature freezing.
- Its causes are:
1. fluidity of the molten metal is
insufficient,
2. pouring temperature is too low,
3. pouring is done too slowly, and/or
4. cross-section of the mold cavity is
too thin.
 Casting Defects
c) Cold shots
- result from splattering during
pouring, causing the formation of
solid globules of metal that become
entrapped in the casting.
- Pouring procedures and gating
system designs that avoid splattering
can prevent this defect.
 Casting Defects
d) Shrinkage cavity
- a depression in the surface or an
internal void in the casting, caused by
solidification shrinkage that restricts
the amount of molten metal available
in the last region to freeze.
- often occurs near the top of the
casting; in which case it is referred to
as a ‘‘pipe.’’
- problem can often be solved by proper
riser design.
 Casting Defects
e) Microporosity
- consists of a network of small voids
distributed throughout the casting
caused by localized solidification
shrinkage of the final molten metal in
the dendritic structure.
- The defect is usually associated with
alloys, because of the protracted
manner in which freezing occurs in
these metals.
 Casting Defects
f) Hot tearing
- also called hot cracking, occurs when the casting
is restrained from contraction by an unyielding
mold during the final stages of solidification or
early stages of cooling after solidification.
- The defect is manifested as a separation of the
metal (hence, the terms tearing and cracking) at
a point of high tensile stress caused by the
metal’s inability to shrink naturally.
- In sand casting and other expendable-mold
processes, it is prevented by compounding the
mold to be collapsible.
- In permanent-mold processes, hot tearing is
reduced by removing the part from the mold
immediately after solidification.
 Casting Defects found primarily in sand castings
a) Sand blow
- defect consisting of a balloon-shaped
gas cavity caused by release of mold
gases during pouring.
- occurs at or below the casting
surface near the top of the casting.
- Low permeability, poor venting, and
high moisture content of the sand
mold are the usual causes.
 Casting Defects found primarily in sand castings
b) Pinholes
- also caused by release of gases
during pouring
- consist of many small gas cavities
formed at or slightly below the
surface of the casting.
 Casting Defects found primarily in sand castings
c) Sand wash
- an irregularity in the surface of the
casting that results from erosion of
the sand mold during pouring, and
the contour of the erosion is formed
in the surface of the final cast part.
 Casting Defects found primarily in sand castings
d) Scabs
- rough areas on the surface of
the casting due to encrustations
of sand and metal.
- caused by portions of the mold
surface flaking off during
solidification and becoming
imbedded in the casting surface.
 Casting Defects found primarily in sand castings
e) Penetration
- a surface defect that occurs when the
fluidity of the liquid metal is high,
and it penetrates into the sand mold
or sand core.
- Upon freezing, the casting surface
consists of a mixture of sand grains
and metal.
- Harder packing of the sand mold
helps to alleviate this condition.
 Casting Defects found primarily in sand castings

f) Mold shift
- a defect caused by a sidewise
displacement of the mold cope
relative to the drag, the result of
which is a step in the cast product
at the parting line.
 Casting Defects found primarily in sand castings
g) Core shift
- similar to mold shift, but it is the
core that is displaced, and the
displacement is usually vertical.
- Core shift and mold shift are
caused by buoyancy of the
molten metal.
 Casting Defects found primarily in sand castings

h) Mold crack
- occurs when mold strength is
insufficient, and a crack develops,
into which liquid metal can seep
to form a ‘‘fin’’ on the final
casting.
 Inspection Methods in Foundry
1) visual inspection to detect obvious defects such as misruns, cold shuts, and
severe surface flaws;
2) dimensional measurements to ensure that tolerances have been met; and
3) metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests concerned with the inherent
quality of the cast metal. Tests in this category include:
- pressure testing—to locate leaks in the casting;
- radiographic methods, magnetic particle tests, the use of fluorescent penetrants,
and supersonic testing—to detect either surface or internal defects in the casting;
and
- mechanical testing to determine properties such as tensile strength and hardness.
* If defects are discovered but are not too serious, it is often possible to save the
casting by welding, grinding, or other salvage methods to which the customer has
agreed.
 METALS FOR CASTING
1. Ferrous Casting Alloys
Cast Iron - The tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that of all other metals
combined. There are several types of cast iron: (1) gray cast iron, (2) nodular iron, (3) white
cast iron, (4) malleable iron, and (5) alloy cast irons. Typical pouring temperatures for cast
iron are around 14000C, depending on composition.
Steel - The mechanical properties of steel make it an attractive engineering material and the
capability to create complex geometries makes casting an appealing process.
- However, great difficulties are faced by the foundry specializing in steel. First, the melting
point of steel is considerably higher than for most other metals that are commonly cast.
The solidification range for low carbon steels begins at just under 1540⁰C. This means that
the pouring temperature required for steel is very high—about 1650⁰C.
- At these high temperatures, steel is chemically very reactive. It readily oxidizes, so special
procedures must be used during melting and pouring to isolate the molten metal from air.
- Also, molten steel has relatively poor fluidity, and this limits the design of thin sections in
components cast out of steel.
 METALS FOR CASTING
Steel
- Several characteristics of steel castings make it worth the effort to solve these
problems.
 Tensile strength is higher than for most other casting metals, ranging upward
from about 410 MPa.
 Steel castings have better toughness than most other casting alloys.
 The properties of steel castings are isotropic; strength is virtually the same in
all directions. By contrast, mechanically formed parts (e.g., rolling, forging)
exhibit directionality in their properties. Depending on the requirements of
the product, isotropic behavior of the material may be desirable.
 ease of welding. They can be readily welded without significant loss of
strength, to repair the casting, or to fabricate structures with other steel
components.
 METALS FOR CASTING
Nonferrous Casting Alloys
- include alloys of aluminum, magnesium, copper, tin, zinc, nickel, and titanium.
- Aluminum alloys are generally considered to be very castable. The melting point of pure aluminum is 6600C, so pouring
temperatures for aluminum casting alloys are low compared to cast iron and steel. Their properties make them attractive
for castings: light weight, wide range of strength properties attainable through heat treatment, and ease of machining.
- Magnesium alloys are the lightest of all casting metals. Other properties include corrosion resistance, as well as high
strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios.
- Copper alloys include bronze, brass, and aluminum bronze. Properties that make them attractive include corrosion
resistance, attractive appearance, and good bearing qualities. The high cost of copper is a limitation on the use of its alloys.
Applications include pipe fittings, marine propeller blades, pump components, and ornamental jewelry.
- Tin has the lowest melting point of the casting metals. Tin-based alloys are generally easy to cast. They have good
corrosion resistant but poor mechanical strength, which limits their applications to pewter mugs and similar products not
requiring high strength.
- Zinc alloys are commonly used in die casting. Zinc has a low melting point and good fluidity, making it highly castable. Its
major weakness is low creep strength, so its castings cannot be subjected to prolonged high stresses.
- Nickel alloys have good hot strength and corrosion resistance, which make them suited to high-temperature applications
such as jet engine and rocket components, heat shields, and similar components. Nickel alloys also have a high melting
point and are not easy to cast.
- Titanium alloys for casting are corrosion resistant and possess high strength to-weight ratios. However, titanium has a high
melting point, low fluidity, and a propensity to oxidize at high temperatures. These properties make it and its alloys difficult
to cast.
 PRODUCT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN CASTING
a) Geometric simplicity.
- Although casting is a process that can be used to produce complex part
geometries, simplifying the part design will improve its castability.
- Avoiding unnecessary complexities simplifies mold making, reduces the need
for cores, and improves the strength of the casting.
b) Corners.
- Sharp corners and angles should be avoided, because they are sources of
stress concentrations and may cause hot tearing and cracks in the casting.
- Generous fillets should be designed on inside corners, and sharp edges should
be blended.
 PRODUCT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN CASTING
d) Section thicknesses.
- Section thicknesses should be
uniform in order to avoid shrinkage
cavities.
- Thicker sections create hot spots in
the casting, because greater volume
requires more time for solidification
and cooling.
- These are likely locations of
shrinkage cavities.
 PRODUCT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN
CASTING
e) Draft.
- Part sections that project into the mold
should have a draft or taper.
- In expendable-mold casting, the
purpose of this draft is to facilitate
removal of the pattern from the mold.
- In permanent-mold casting, its purpose
is to aid in removal of the part from the
mold.
- Similar tapers should be allowed if solid
cores are used in the casting process.
- The required draft need only be about
1 for sand casting and 2 to 3 for
permanent-mold processes.
 PRODUCT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN
CASTING
f) Use of cores.
- Minor changes in part design can reduce the need for coring.
g) Dimensional tolerances.
- There are significant differences in the dimensional accuracies that can be
achieved in castings, depending on which process is used.
h) Surface finish.
- Typical surface roughness achieved in sand casting is around 6 mm.
- Similarly poor finishes are obtained in shell molding, while plaster-mold and
investment casting produce much better roughness values: 0.75 mm.
- Among the permanent-mold processes, die casting is noted for good surface
finishes at around 1 mm.
 PRODUCT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN CASTING
i) Machining allowances.
- Tolerances achievable in many casting processes are insufficient to meet
functional needs in many applications.
- Sand casting is the most prominent example of this deficiency.
- In these cases, portions of the casting must be machined to the required
dimensions.
- Almost all sand castings must be machined to some extent in order for the
part to be made functional.
- Therefore, additional material, called the machining allowance, is left on the
casting for machining those surfaces where necessary.
- Typical machining allowances for sand castings range between 1.5 mm and 3
mm.