Microwave Solid State Devices

Transferred Electron Devices(TEDs)

• Main characteristics is negative resistance.
• In a –ve resistance , the current and voltage
are out of phase by 1800 , the voltage drop
across it is negative and a power of (–I2R) is
generated by the power supply associated
with the –ve resistance.
• In a +ve resistance , the current and voltage
are in phase, the voltage drop across it is
positive and a power of (I2R) is dissipated in
the resistor.
 Transferred Electron Devices(TEDs)
• A +ve resistance absorb power(passive device)
and –ve resistance generate power(active device).
• TEDs are fabricated from compound
semiconductors such as Gallium arsenide(GaAs),
Indium phosphide(InP) or Cadmium Telluride
(CdTe).
• TEDs operate with hot electrons whose energy is
very much greater than the thermal energy.
 Gunn diodes
• Gunn diodes are also known as transferred
electron devices.
• Although is referred to as a diode, the devices
does not possess a PN junction. Instead the
device uses an effect known as the Gunn
effect (named after the discoverer, J B Gunn)
Gunn Effect
 Gunn effect contd…
• The frequency of oscillation was determined
mainly by the specimen, and not by the
external circuit.
• The period of oscillation was usually inversely
proportional to the specimen length and
closely equal to the transit time of electrons
between the electrodes
 Gunn effect contd…
• Gunn's observed that the carrier
drift velocity is linearly increased
from zero to a maximum when
the electric field is varied from
zero to a threshold value.
• When the electric field is beyond
the threshold value of 3000V/cm
for the n-type GaAs, the drift
velocity is decreased and the
diode exhibits negative resistance
• Gunn also discovered that the
threshold electric field Eth varied
with the length and type of
material. Eth = V/L
 RIDLEY-WATKINS-HILSUM (RWH)
THEORY
(a) Differential Negative Resistance
• The fundamental concept of the Ridley-Watkins-Hilsum
(RWH) theory is the differential negative resistance
developed in a bulk solid-state III-V compound when
either a voltage (or electric field) or a current is applied
to the terminals of the sample.
• There are two modes of negative-resistance devices:
voltage-controlled and current-controlled modes
 Differential Negative Resistance
contd…
• In the voltage-
controlled mode the
current density can be
multivalued, whereas
in the current-
controlled mode the
voltage can be
multivalued.
 Differential Negative Resistance
contd…
• In the voltage-controlled
negative-resistance mode
high-field domains are
formed, separating two
low-field regions.
• In the current-controlled
negative-resistance mode
splitting the sample results
in high-current filaments
running along the field
direction
 RIDLEY-WATKINS-HILSUM (RWH)
THEORY
(b) Two-Valley Model Theory
• Basic mechanism involved in the operation of
bulk n-type GaAs devices is the transfer of
electrons from lower conduction valley the L-
valley to upper subsidiary valley the U-valley.
• According to the energy band theory of the n-
type GaAs, a high-mobility lower valley is
separated by an energy of 0.36 eV from a low-
mobility upper valley
 Two-Valley Model Theory contd..
• Electron densities in the lower and upper valleys
remain the same under an equilibrium condition.
• When the applied electric field is lower than the
electric field of the lower valley (E < El) no electrons
will transfer to the upper valley.
• When the applied electric field is higher than that of
the lower valley and lower than that of the upper
valley (El < E < Eu), electrons will begin to transfer to
the upper valley
• when the applied electric field is higher than that of
the upper valley (Eu < E), all electrons will transfer to
the upper valley
 Two-Valley Model Theory contd
• If electron densities in the lower and upper valleys
are nl and nu , the conductivity of the n -type GaAs is

where e = the electron charge

μ =the electron mobility
n =nl + nu is the electron density
 Two-Valley Model Theory contd
On the basis of the Ridley-Watkins-Hilsum theory, the band structure
of a semiconductor must satisfy three criteria in order to exhibit
negative resistance
1. The separation energy between the bottom of the lower
valley and the bottom of the upper valley must be several
times larger than the thermal energy (about 0.026 eV) at
room temperature. This means that ΔE > kT or ΔE > 0.026
eV.
2. The separation energy between the valleys must be
smaller than the gap energy between the conduction and
valence bands. This means that ΔE < Eg. Otherwise the
semiconductor will break down and become highly
conductive before the electrons begin to transfer to the
upper valleys because hole-electron pair formation is
created.
 Two-Valley Model Theory contd

3. Electrons in the lower valley must have high

mobility, small effective mass, and a low density
of state, whereas those in the upper valley must
have low mobility, large effective mass, and a
high density of state. In other words, electron
velocities (dE/ dk) must be much larger in the
lower valleys than in the
upper valleys.
 Domain formation
• In the n-type GaAs diode the majority carriers
are electrons.
• At low voltage the GaAs is ohmic, since the
drift velocity of the electrons is proportional
to the electric field.
Domain formation contd…
 Domain formation contd…
• When a dc bias of value above the threshold
field of about 3.3kV/cm is applied to an n-type
GaAs sample, the charge densities and electric
field within the sample become no-uniform
creating domains.
ie. Electrons in some regions of the sample will
be first to experience the intervalley transfer
than the rest of the sample.
 Domain formation contd…
• The electric field inside the dipole domain would
be greater than the fields on either side of the
dipole.
• Both the applied field and the field due to
accumulated charges are present if applied field
is at threshold.
• The field at the anode side of the accumulation
charge exceeds threshold and electrons in that
region or domain move with less mobility of the
upper valley. This creates a slight deficiency of
electrons in the region immediately ahead.
• The region of excess and deficient electrons form
a dipole layer
 Domain formation contd…
• As the dipole drifts along, more electrons in the
vicinity will transfer to the U-valley until the
electric field depressed below threshold electric
field.
• This dipole continues towards the anode until it is
collected.
• Upon collection the field in the sample jumps
immediately to its original value and the next
domain formation begins as soon as the field
value exceeds the threshold value and the
process is then repeated.
 Domain formation contd…
• The time taken by the
dipole domain to travel
from cathode to anode
is the transit time of the
device.
Then the frequency is
given by,
f= Vd / L
Vd - drift velocity
L - device length
f= Vd / L
 Modes of Operation
• Various modes of operation have been developed,
depending on the material parameters and
operating conditions.
1.Gunn oscillation mode
2.Limited Space charge Accumulation (LSA) mode
3.Stable amplification mode
4.Bias-circuit oscillation mode
 Gunn Oscillation Mode
(1012/cm2 ≤ (n0 L) < 1014/cm2)

• When n0 L is greater than 1012/cm2 in GaAs, the

space charge perturbations in the specimen
increase exponentially in space and time.
• a high-field domain is formed and moves from
the cathode to the anode.
The frequency of oscillation is given by,
f= Vd / L
Vd - drift velocity
L - device length
 Gunn Oscillation Mode contd…

• The normal Gunn domain mode (or Gunn

oscillation mode) is operated with the electric
field greater than the threshold field (E > Eth).
• The high-field domain drifts along the specimen
until it reaches the anode or until the low-field
value drops below the sustaining field Es
required to maintain Vs
 Gunn Oscillation Mode contd…

• The sustaining drift velocity

for GaAs is Vs = 107 cm/s.
Since the electron drift
velocity v varies with the
electric field, there are
three possible domain
modes for the Gunn
oscillation mode.
 Gunn Oscillation Mode contd…
i. Transit-time domain mode (fL = 107 cm/s)
• When the electron drift velocity Vd is equal to
the sustaining velocity Vs , the high-field domain
is stable
Vd = Vs = fL = 107 cm/s
Then the oscillation period is equal to the transit
time-that is, ζo = ζs
• The efficiency is below 10% because the current
is collected only when the domain arrives at the
anode.
 Gunn Oscillation Mode contd…
ii) Delayed domain mode (106 cm/s <fL < 107 cm/s)
• When the transit time is chosen so that the
domain is collected while E < Eth, a new domain
cannot form until the field rises above threshold
again.
• The oscillation period is greater than the transit
time-that is, ζo > ζs .
• This delayed mode is also called inhibited mode.
• The efficiency of this mode is about 20%.
 Gunn Oscillation Mode contd…
iii) Quenched domain mode (fL > 2 x 107 cm/s)
• If the bias field drops below the sustaining
field Es during the negative half-cycle, the
domain collapses before it reaches the anode.
• The domain does not travel all the way to
anode and thereby the operating frequency
will be higher than that of Gunn mode or
delayed mode, certainly this depends on the
external circuit.
 Gunn Oscillation Mode contd…
• When the bias field swings back above threshold,
a new domain will be formed and the process
repeats.
• Hence in this mode, the domain is quenched
before it reaches the anode.
• Theoretically, the efficiency of quenched domain
oscillators can reach 13%.
2. Stable amplification mode(no L < 1012/cm2)
• The device exhibits amplification at the transit-
time frequency rather than spontaneous
oscillation.
• There are types of amplification depending on the
fL product of the device.
3. Bias-circuit oscillation mode
• It occurs only when there is either Gunn or LSA
oscillation and it is uaually at the region where the
product of frequency times length is too small to
appear.
 MICROWAVE GENERATION AND
AMPLIFICATION
MICROWAVE GENERATION
• If the applied field is less than threshold the
specimen is stable.
• If, the field is greater than threshold, the sample is
unstable and divides up into two domains of
different conductivity and different electric field but
the same drift velocity.
• At the initial formation of the accumulation layer,
the field behind the layer decreases and the field in
front of it increases. This process continues as the
layer travels from the cathode toward the anode.
 MICROWAVE GENERATION contd...
• As the layer approaches the anode, the field behind it begins
to increase again; and after the layer is collected by the
anode, the field in the whole sample is higher than threshold.
• When the high-field domain disappears at the anode, a new
dipole field starts forming again at the cathode and the
process repeats itself.
• Since current density is proportional to the drift velocity of
the electrons, a pulsed current output is obtained.
• The oscillation frequency of the pulsed current is given by
f=Vd/Leff
where vd is the velocity of the domain or approximately the drift
velocity of the electrons and Leff is the effective length that
the domain travels.
 MICROWAVE AMPLIFICATION

Input output
Circ
Isolator ulat isolator
or

Gunn
Amp
 MICROWAVE AMPLIFICATION contd…
• When an RF signal is applied to a Gunn oscillator,
amplification of the signal occurs, provided that the
signal frequency is low enough to allow the space
charge in the domain to readjust itself.
• There is a critical value of fL above which the device
will not amplify.
• If no L < 1012/cm2, domain formation is inhibited and
the device exhibits a nonuniform field distribution that
is stable with respect to time and space. Such a diode
can amplify signals in the vicinity of the transit-time
frequency and its harmonics without oscillation.
 MICROWAVE AMPLIFICATION
contd
• Although a large number of
possible amplifier circuits exist,
the essential feature of each is
to provide both a broadband
circuit at the signal frequency
and a short circuit at the Gunn
oscillation frequency.