Chapter 10 : Software

Evolution
Lecture 1

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Topics covered

Evolution processes
 Change processes for software systems
Program evolution dynamics
 Understanding software evolution
Software maintenance
 Making changes to operational software systems
Legacy system management
 Making decisions about software change

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Software change

Software change is inevitable

 New requirements emerge when the software is used;
 The business environment changes;
 Errors must be repaired;
 New computers and equipment is added to the system;
 The performance or reliability of the system may have to be improved.
A key problem for all organizations is implementing and
managing change to their existing software systems.

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Importance of evolution

Organisations have huge investments in their software

systems - they are critical business assets.
To maintain the value of these assets to the business, they
must be changed and updated.
The majority of the software budget in large companies is
devoted to changing and evolving existing software rather than
developing new software.

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A spiral model of development and
evolution

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Evolution and servicing

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Evolution and servicing

Evolution
 The stage in a software system’s life cycle where it is in operational
use and is evolving as new requirements are proposed and
implemented in the system.
Servicing
 At this stage, the software remains useful but the only changes made
are those required to keep it operational i.e. bug fixes and changes to
reflect changes in the software’s environment. No new functionality is
added.
Phase-out
 The software may still be used but no further changes are made to it.

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Evolution processes

Software evolution processes depend on

 The type of software being maintained;
 The development processes used;
 The skills and experience of the people involved.
Proposals for change are the driver for system evolution.
 Should be linked with components that are affected by the change,
thus allowing the cost and impact of the change to be estimated.
Change identification and evolution continues throughout the
system lifetime.

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Change identification and evolution
processes

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The software evolution process

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Change implementation

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Change implementation

Iteration of the development process where the revisions to the

system are designed, implemented and tested.
A critical difference is that the first stage of change
implementation may involve program understanding, especially
if the original system developers are not responsible for the
change implementation.
During the program understanding phase, you have to
understand how the program is structured, how it delivers
functionality and how the proposed change might affect the
program.

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Urgent change requests

Urgent changes may have to be implemented without going

through all stages of the software engineering process
 If a serious system fault has to be repaired to allow normal operation to
continue;
 If changes to the system’s environment (e.g. an OS upgrade) have
unexpected effects;
 If there are business changes that require a very rapid response (e.g.
the release of a competing product).

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The emergency repair process

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Agile methods and evolution

Agile methods are based on incremental development so the

transition from development to evolution is a seamless one.
 Evolution is simply a continuation of the development process based
on frequent system releases.
Automated regression testing is particularly valuable when
changes are made to a system.
Changes may be expressed as additional user stories.

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Handover problems

Where the development team have used an agile approach but

the evolution team is unfamiliar with agile methods and prefer a
plan-based approach.
 The evolution team may expect detailed documentation to support
evolution and this is not produced in agile processes.
Where a plan-based approach has been used for development
but the evolution team prefer to use agile methods.
 The evolution team may have to start from scratch developing
automated tests and the code in the system may not have been
refactored and simplified as is expected in agile development.

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Program evolution dynamics

• Program evolution dynamics is the study of the processes of system

change.
• After several major empirical studies, Lehman and Belady proposed
that there were a number of ‘laws’ which applied to all systems as
they evolved.
• There are sensible observations rather than laws. They are applicable
to large systems developed by large organisations.
• It is not clear if these are applicable to other types of software system.

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Change is inevitable

The system requirements are likely to change

while the system is being developed because
the environment is changing. Therefore a
delivered system won't meet its requirements!
Systems are tightly coupled with their environment. When a
system is installed in an
environment it changes that environment and
therefore changes the system requirements.
Systems MUST be changed if they
are to remain useful in an environment.

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 Lehman’s laws

Law Description
Continuing change A program that is used in a real-world environment must necessarily
change, or else become progressively less useful in that
environment.
Increasing As an evolving program changes, its structure tends to become more
complexity complex. Extra resources must be devoted to preserving and
simplifying the structure.
Large program Program evolution is a self-regulating process. System attributes
evolution such as size, time between releases, and the number of reported
errors is approximately invariant for each system release.
Organizational Over a program’s lifetime, its rate of development is approximately
stability constant and independent of the resources devoted to system
development.

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 Lehman’s laws

Law Description
Conservation of familiarity Over the lifetime of a system, the incremental change in each
release is approximately constant.
Continuing growth The functionality offered by systems has to continually
increase to maintain user satisfaction.
Declining quality The quality of systems will decline unless they are modified to
reflect changes in their operational environment.
Feedback system Evolution processes incorporate multiagent, multiloop
feedback systems and you have to treat them as feedback
systems to achieve significant product improvement.

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Applicability of Lehman’s laws

Lehman’s laws seem to be generally applicable to large,

tailored systems developed by large organisations.
 Confirmed in early 2000’s by work by Lehman on the FEAST project.
It is not clear how they should be modified for
 Shrink-wrapped software products;
 Systems that incorporate a significant number of COTS components;
 Small organisations;
 Medium sized systems.

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Software maintenance

Modifying a program after it has been put into use.

The term is mostly used for changing custom software.
Generic software products are said to evolve to create new
versions.
Maintenance does not normally involve major changes to the
system’s architecture.
Changes are implemented by modifying existing components
and adding new components to the system.

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Types of maintenance

Maintenance to repair software faults

 Changing a system to correct deficiencies in the way meets its
requirements.
Maintenance to adapt software to a different operating
environment
 Changing a system so that it operates in a different environment
(computer, OS, etc.) from its initial implementation.
Maintenance to add to or modify the system’s functionality
 Modifying the system to satisfy new requirements.

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Figure 10.8 Maintenance effort
distribution

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Maintenance costs

Usually greater than development costs (2* to

100* depending on the application).
Affected by both technical and non-technical
factors.
Increases as software is maintained.
Maintenance corrupts the software structure so
makes further maintenance more difficult.
Ageing software can have high support costs
(e.g. old languages, compilers etc.).

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Figure 10.9 Development and
maintenance costs

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Maintenance cost factors
Team stability
 Maintenance costs are reduced if the same staff are involved with them
for some time.
Contractual responsibility
 The developers of a system may have no contractual responsibility for
maintenance so there is no incentive to design for future change.
Staff skills
 Maintenance staff are often inexperienced and have limited domain
knowledge.
Program age and structure
 As programs age, their structure is degraded and they become harder to
understand and change.

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Maintenance prediction

Maintenance prediction is concerned with assessing which

parts of the system may cause problems and have high
maintenance costs
 Change acceptance depends on the maintainability of the components
affected by the change;
 Implementing changes degrades the system and reduces its
maintainability;
 Maintenance costs depend on the number of changes and costs of
change depend on maintainability.

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Maintenance prediction

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Change prediction

Predicting the number of changes requires and understanding

of the relationships between a system and its environment.
Tightly coupled systems require changes whenever the
environment is changed.
Factors influencing this relationship are
 Number and complexity of system interfaces;
 Number of inherently volatile system requirements;
 The business processes where the system is used.

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Complexity metrics

Predictions of maintainability can be made by assessing the

complexity of system components.
Studies have shown that most maintenance effort is spent on a
relatively small number of system components.
Complexity depends on
 Complexity of control structures;
 Complexity of data structures;
 Object, method (procedure) and module size.

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Process metrics

Process metrics may be used to assess maintainability

 Number of requests for corrective maintenance;
 Average time required for impact analysis;
 Average time taken to implement a change request;
 Number of outstanding change requests.
If any or all of these is increasing, this may indicate a decline in
maintainability.

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System re-engineering

Re-structuring or re-writing part or all of a

legacy system without changing its
functionality.
Applicable where some but not all sub-systems
of a larger system require frequent
maintenance.
Re-engineering involves adding effort to make
them easier to maintain. The system may be re-structured and
re-documented.

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Advantages of reengineering

Reduced risk
 There is a high risk in new software development. There may be
development problems, staffing problems and specification problems.
Reduced cost
 The cost of re-engineering is often significantly less than the costs of
developing new software.

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The reengineering process

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Reengineering process activities

Source code translation

 Convert code to a new language.
Reverse engineering
 Analyse the program to understand it;
Program structure improvement
 Restructure automatically for understandability;
Program modularisation
 Reorganise the program structure;
Data reengineering
 Clean-up and restructure system data.

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Figure 10.12 Reengineering approaches

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Reengineering cost factors

The quality of the software to be reengineered.

The tool support available for reengineering.
The extent of the data conversion which is required.
The availability of expert staff for reengineering.
 This can be a problem with old systems based on technology that is no
longer widely used.

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Preventative maintenance by refactoring

Refactoring is the process of making improvements to a

program to slow down degradation through change.
You can think of refactoring as ‘preventative maintenance’ that
reduces the problems of future change.
Refactoring involves modifying a program to improve its
structure, reduce its complexity or make it easier to understand.
When you refactor a program, you should not add functionality
but rather concentrate on program improvement.

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Refactoring and reengineering

Re-engineering takes place after a system has been

maintained for some time and maintenance costs are
increasing. You use automated tools to process and re-
engineer a legacy system to create a new system that is more
maintainable.
Refactoring is a continuous process of improvement
throughout the development and evolution process. It is
intended to avoid the structure and code degradation that
increases the costs and difficulties of maintaining a system.

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‘Bad smells’ in program code

Duplicate code
 The same or very similar code may be included at different places in a
program. This can be removed and implemented as a single method or
function that is called as required.
Long methods
 If a method is too long, it should be redesigned as a number of shorter
methods.
Switch (case) statements
 These often involve duplication, where the switch depends on the type
of a value. The switch statements may be scattered around a program.
In object-oriented languages, you can often use polymorphism to
achieve the same thing.

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‘Bad smells’ in program code

Data clumping
 Data clumps occur when the same group of data items (fields in
classes, parameters in methods) re-occur in several places in a
program. These can often be replaced with an object that encapsulates
all of the data.
Speculative generality
 This occurs when developers include generality in a program in case it
is required in the future. This can often simply be removed.

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Legacy system management

Organisations that rely on legacy systems must choose a

strategy for evolving these systems
 Scrap the system completely and modify business processes so that it
is no longer required;
 Continue maintaining the system;
 Transform the system by re-engineering to improve its maintainability;
 Replace the system with a new system.
The strategy chosen should depend on the system quality and
its business value.

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Figure 9.13 An example of a legacy
system assessment

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Legacy system categories

Low quality, low business value

 These systems should be scrapped.
Low-quality, high-business value
 These make an important business contribution but are expensive to
maintain. Should be re-engineered or replaced if a suitable system is
available.
High-quality, low-business value
 Replace with COTS, scrap completely or maintain.
High-quality, high business value
 Continue in operation using normal system maintenance.

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Business value assessment

Assessment should take different viewpoints into account

 System end-users;
 Business customers;
 Line managers;
 IT managers;
 Senior managers.
Interview different stakeholders and collate results.

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 Issues in business value assessment
The use of the system
 If systems are only used occasionally or by a small number of people, they
may have a low business value.
The business processes that are supported
 A system may have a low business value if it forces the use of inefficient
business processes.
System dependability
 If a system is not dependable and the problems directly affect business
customers, the system has a low business value.
The system outputs
 If the business depends on system outputs, then the system has a high
business value.

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System quality assessment

Business process assessment

 How well does the business process support the current goals of the
business?
Environment assessment
 How effective is the system’s environment and how expensive is it to
maintain?
Application assessment
 What is the quality of the application software system?

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Business process assessment

Use a viewpoint-oriented approach and seek answers from

system stakeholders
 Is there a defined process model and is it followed?
 Do different parts of the organisation use different processes for the
same function?
 How has the process been adapted?
 What are the relationships with other business processes and are
these necessary?
 Is the process effectively supported by the legacy application
software?
Example - a travel ordering system may have a low business
value because of the widespread use of web-based ordering.

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 Factors used in environment assessment

Factor Questions
Supplier stability Is the supplier still in existence? Is the supplier financially stable and
likely to continue in existence? If the supplier is no longer in business,
does someone else maintain the systems?
Failure rate Does the hardware have a high rate of reported failures? Does the
support software crash and force system restarts?
Age How old is the hardware and software? The older the hardware and
support software, the more obsolete it will be. It may still function
correctly but there could be significant economic and business
benefits to moving to a more modern system.
Performance Is the performance of the system adequate? Do performance
problems have a significant effect on system users?

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 Factors used in environment assessment

Factor Questions
Support requirements What local support is required by the hardware and
software? If there are high costs associated with this
support, it may be worth considering system replacement.
Maintenance costs What are the costs of hardware maintenance and support
software licences? Older hardware may have higher
maintenance costs than modern systems. Support software
may have high annual licensing costs.
Interoperability Are there problems interfacing the system to other systems?
Can compilers, for example, be used with current versions
of the operating system? Is hardware emulation required?

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Factors used in application assessment

Factor Questions
Understandability How difficult is it to understand the source code of the current
system? How complex are the control structures that are used?
Do variables have meaningful names that reflect their function?
Documentation What system documentation is available? Is the documentation
complete, consistent, and current?
Data Is there an explicit data model for the system? To what extent is
data duplicated across files? Is the data used by the system up to
date and consistent?
Performance Is the performance of the application adequate? Do performance
problems have a significant effect on system users?

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 Factors used in application assessment

Factor Questions
Programming language Are modern compilers available for the programming
language used to develop the system? Is the programming
language still used for new system development?
Configuration Are all versions of all parts of the system managed by a
management configuration management system? Is there an explicit
description of the versions of components that are used in
the current system?
Test data Does test data for the system exist? Is there a record of
regression tests carried out when new features have been
added to the system?
Personnel skills Are there people available who have the skills to maintain the
application? Are there people available who have experience
with the system?

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